A Phenomenological Study Examining How Managers Experience Entropy In Business Systems And Processes And How These Experiences Influence The Actions Of The Managers

Timothy Hough

A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of

The Chicago School of Professional Psychology

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of Ph.D. Business Psychology

Dr. Lonnie Morris

Dr. Julie Benesh

Dr. Marlon Sukal

 

 

[Date of Defense (Month day, year)]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Unpublished Work

2023 by Timothy Hough

All Rights Reserved

 

 

 

 

 

A Study To Examine How Managers Experience Entropy In Business Systems And Processes And How These Experiences Influence The Actions Of The Managers

 

A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of

The Chicago School of Professional Psychology

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of Ph.D. Business Psychology

 

 

Timothy Hough

 

2023

 

 

Chapter 1: Nature of the Study

      For the past thirty years, I have worked with companies to bring software products to life. During that time, I have learned how Lehman's (1980) laws of software evolution guide and craft how software is created, refactored, and made obsolete. During one such cycle, I was also helping a company understand how it needed to go through a transformation to "upgrade" the company. The head of operations was managing this transformation. It consisted of examining every business process in the company to determine if the process was still adequate for the business. At that moment, I started to wonder about the experience managers had with the aging of business systems and processes. These thoughts are what spawned this study.

Background

      The study of Business Psychology includes the analysis and assistance with "organizational development and change (Ph.d. in business psychology: Chicago campus: TCSPP 2021)". The examination of business processes must be considered when evaluating organizational development and change (Grover et al., 1995). Often these process changes are viewed in the light of overall process improvement.

      Although I had experience with Lehman's concept of technical debt (Lehman & Belady, 1985), I was unaware that this concept was a synthesis of eight software development laws Lehman and his team had formulated over 20 years (Lehman, 1980). Upon further investigation, I discovered the concept of entropy, or the tendency of structured items to decay and move towards a state of disorder (Swendsen, 2012), is the main driver behind the need to continually update and evolve computer systems (Ray et al., 2016). 

      Okwufulueze (2020) takes the concept of entropy of a system to new heights by proposing that systems can and do reach an end of life where they are no longer useful and therefore do not require any additional updates or changes. Grover et al. (1995) call the process to evaluate business systems and processes business process reengineering. Grover et al. (1995) state that business process reengineering is typically initiated by senior management and has a very high risk of failure due to the complexity and challenges of change management.

      In 2012, Huysmans et al. wrote a paper explaining how Lehamn's (1980) original theory of entropy within computer systems could be applied to business systems and business processes. They conclude, in theory, this is true. A reverse lookup of where the Huysmans et al. (2012) article was cited shows eight citation instances. The dissertation by Brant (2021) proposed a model that would explain the consumption patterns of high-net-worth individuals.  In their research, De Bruyn & Mannaert (2013) perform a case study in which they run a monte-carlo simulation for a company to determine how entropy affects business processes. Huysmans & De Bruyn (2014) use a small subset of the Huysmans et al. (2012) theory to propose a method of activity-based costing that could be used to make business decisions around business processes. In their research, De Bruyn et al. (2014) bring forward a set of 25 design guidelines businesses can use when designing business or information technology processes to help the systems evolve with the business. De Bruyn et al. (2014) explores using entropy as a tool to create a design science theory that can be applied to the creation of business processes. The entropy of the process is already predetermined and therefore addressed in the creation of the business process. De Bruyn (2012) examined how the concepts of entropy and stability interact with the analysis and design of normalized systems within an enterprise. De Bruyn et al. (2013) examined how entropy was generated in a cost-accounting business process. Finally, the work performed by Huysmans et al. (2013) expanded on the normalized system work performed by De Bruyn (2012). The Huysmans et al. (2013) work applied normalized systems theory to design systems, thus creating a framework by which entropy could be evaluated within business processes and systems.  

Problem Statement

      Huysmans et al. (2012) propose a theory that entropy can affect business processes. Because of this entropy, businesses are forced to adapt to stay competitive. Although the work performed by Huysmans et al. (2012) has been referenced in eight other studies, none of the referenced studies examine how managers experience entropy within business systems and processes. Once a manager's experiences are examined and better understood, there may be a way to address the entropy of business systems and processes through the standard business planning, business strategy, and change management tools already within the business.

Rationale For Selecting This Problem to Analyze

      Hammer & Champy (1994) explain that business leaders need to be more proactive while taking a "broader view" of business processes. This "broader view" may require business leaders to reexamine an entire business process versus just examining smaller tasks within the overall process. Suppose it is possible to understand how managers experience entropy within business processes and systems. In that case, a model may be developed for business planning and strategy sessions. Ultimately, the application of this model could minimize or eliminate the need to perform business process reengineering projects. 

Purpose of the Study

      The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study is to explore the lived experiences of managers as they encounter the theory proposed by Huysmans, De Bruyn, Mannaert, & Oorts (2012) that Lehman's theory of computer system entropy (Lehman, 1980) can be applied to business process systems. 

Research Question

      Because no study has examined the actions and experiences of managers, research will be performed in this study to explore this topic. The following research question (and sub-questions) will be utilized in this examination. RQ: What are managers lived experiences with business systems' entropy (aging)? The one sub-question that will be used to ground the study further is:

1. Does an organization having a formal way to identify and update aging business processes and systems change the experiences of the managers?

Conceptual Framework

      According to Creswell and Ba´ez (2021), phenomenological research examines how individuals use the human experience to construct meaning. It is also important to note that according to Moustakas (2013), understanding the essence of the interviewee's different perspectives helps a researcher improve the accuracy of the observed phenomenon. To better understand these experiences, interpretive phenomenological analysis is intertwined throughout this research design.

      Lehman (1980) proposed the theory of entropy within a computer system. This theory espouses that the usefulness of a computer system diminishes over time. Eventually, the system in question must be either abandoned (retired) or rewritten. Randall (1985) examines this theory further by examining how the interaction of people with computer systems and processes changes the functional dynamic of the system. Herraiz et al. (2013) further explain human interaction within systems design by examining how design decisions are made within silos. These silos create friction between different system parts, resulting in system obsolescence. 

      Based on the work performed by Lehman (1980), Randall (1985), and Herraiz et al. (2013), it would be difficult for one to argue that entropy within a computer system does not exist. Although Randall (1985) argues that the interaction of humans with a system changes the functional dynamics of that system, Randall (1985) did not examine if the functional dynamics of the system would change without human interaction. Herraiz et al. (2013) focused on how decisions made in silos created friction between different parts of the system. Herraiz et al. (2013) did not examine any accretive properties of having work done in silos on systems.

      Huysmans et al. (2012) examined the entropy theory proposed by Lehman (1980) and brought forth the hypothesis that the Lehman (1980) theory could be applied to business processes. Although others (such as Brant (2012), Huysmans & De Bruyn (2014), and De Bruyn et al. (2014)) have advanced the research of Huysmans et al. (2012), no study has been conducted to evaluate the experiences of managers when they encounter entropy within a business system. 

       Figure 1 illustrates the intersection between Lehman's (1980) theory of entropy within computer systems and Huysmans et al.'s (2012) theory of entropy within a business system or process. The overlapping areas of these two theories, the unexplored evaluation of how managers experience entropy within business systems and processes, is the target of this study. 

      

Figure 1 - Diagram of Study Target

Organizational Balance

      Organizational Balance in the context of Entropy within Business Non-technology Systems can be defined as the state of equilibrium and coherence among various non-technological aspects of an organization, such as human resources, processes, and culture, that contributes to the effectiveness, adaptability, and performance of the organization during periods of change and reorganization (Huizing et al., 1997; Ascari et al., 1995; Alekhin & Alekseev, 2022).

      According to Huizing et al. (1997), organizational balance can be achieved by properly aligning business processes and structures and promoting efficient communication, coordination, and decision-making. This balance becomes crucial during process change initiatives, as it helps mitigate the adverse effects of entropy within non-technology systems by fostering stability and control (Huizing et al., 1997).

      Ascari et al. (1995) emphasize that organizational balance is essential for the success of process and organizational change initiatives. They argue that combining a clear vision, strong leadership, and a balanced approach to change management can lead to more effective and sustainable transformations, reducing the entropy within non-technology systems (Ascari et al., 1995).

      Alekhin and Alekseev (2022) further support the notion of organizational balance as a critical factor in enterprise reorganization. They suggest that maintaining balance among various non-technology components, such as organizational structure, management, and culture, can facilitate smooth transitions during reorganization processes, thus minimizing the potential for entropy and chaos in business non-technology systems (Alekhin & Alekseev, 2022).

      Organizational balance can be understood as a state of equilibrium and coherence among non-technological aspects of an organization that contributes to its effectiveness, adaptability, and performance during periods of change and reorganization (Huizing et al., 1997; Ascari et al., 1995; Alekhin & Alekseev, 2022). By promoting organizational balance, companies can minimize the entropy within their non-technology systems, leading to more successful and sustainable transformations.

Entropy in Business and Computer Systems

      Entropy within business non-technology systems refers to the degree of disorder, randomness, or uncertainty inherent in a business process or organizational structure. This construct is derived from the concept of entropy in information theory, which is applied to understand the complexity and efficiency of business systems (De Bruyn et al., 2013). The entropy within business non-technology systems can be quantified using various measures that capture the system's elements' dispersion, diversity, and uncertainty, such as tasks, resources, or information flows (De Bruyn et al., 2012).

      According to De Bruyn et al. (2013), entropy generation within a business process can be observed during the execution of process instantiations. This concept is illustrated in the context of cost accounting, where the dispersion of cost allocations can lead to increased entropy, impacting the system's overall efficiency. Similarly, De Bruyn et al. (2012) discuss the applicability of entropy measures for analyzing business processes, suggesting that entropy can provide insights into the complexity, performance, and potential for improvement of business systems.

      Furthermore, De Bruyn et al. (2014) propose using entropy's justificatory knowledge for developing a business process design theory. This approach emphasizes the importance of understanding and managing entropy within business non-technology systems to enhance efficiency, effectiveness, and adaptability. By incorporating entropy measures into the design and analysis of business processes, organizations can identify areas of inefficiency or misalignment and implement changes to optimize their operations (De Bruyn et al., 2014).

      The construct of entropy within business non-technology systems captures the inherent disorder, randomness, and uncertainty present in organizational structures and processes. By understanding and managing this entropy, businesses can improve their efficiency, effectiveness, and adaptability, ultimately enhancing their overall performance (De Bruyn et al., 2013; De Bruyn et al., 2012; De Bruyn et al., 2014).

Change Management

      Change management is a comprehensive and structured approach that enables organizations to continuously adapt their direction, structure, and capabilities in response to evolving external and internal customer needs (Moran & Brightman, 2000). The change management process involves various stages, such as understanding the need for change, identifying the key drivers, and implementing strategies to facilitate a smooth transition (Beer & Nohria, 2009).

      One key aspect of change management is the recognition that organizations need to be agile and responsive to shifts in their environment, customer preferences, and competitive landscape (Moran & Brightman, 2000). This involves reacting to changes, proactively anticipating them, and positioning the organization to capitalize on emerging opportunities (Beer & Nohria, 2009).

      Effective change management requires strong leadership and a clear vision for the organization's future direction (Kotter, 1996). Leaders must communicate this vision effectively to all stakeholders while fostering a sense of urgency and alignment around the need for change (Kotter, 1996). Additionally, leaders must ensure that the organization's culture and values are aligned with the proposed changes, as these elements play a critical role in determining the success of transformation efforts (Beer & Nohria, 2009).

      Organizations must also identify and address potential barriers to change to successfully manage change, such as employee resistance, inadequate resources, or a lack of necessary skills (Kotter, 1996). Organizations can increase the likelihood of successful change implementation by identifying these barriers early in the process and developing strategies to overcome them (Kotter, 1996).

      Change management is crucial for organizations to adapt and thrive in today's dynamic business environment continually. By leveraging strong leadership, clear communication, and a comprehensive approach to addressing potential barriers, organizations can successfully navigate change and maintain their competitive edge (Moran & Brightman, 2000; Beer & Nohria, 2009; Kotter, 1996).

Scope of the Study

      This study is intended to examine how the lived experiences of managers, as they have experienced entropy within a business system or process, inform the leader's decisions and actions. The participants included middle management business leaders in companies with an employee count of 25 or over. The company will need to have been in business for three or more years. The participants will come from all industries, demographics, races, ages, and genders and will be sourced from various companies.

Definitions of Key Terms

      Business process: A set of techniques and systems used throughout a business to process the work the company performs (Bianchi et al., 2001).

      Business psychology: The study of psychology where practitioners assist organizations in improving organizational performance, developing better corporate strategy, and managing change within the organization (Ph.d. in business psychology: Chicago campus: TCSPP 2021).

      Entropy: The tendency of a system to move from a state of order to disorder (Entropy definition & meaning).

      Software refactoring: The process by which computer systems are updated to evolve and expand (Mens & Tourwe, 2004).

      Technical debt: The incremental cost of updating or providing maintenance to a computer system caused by deliberate trade-offs selected during the development of the system (Alves et al., 2014).

Significance of the Study

      Businesses are run on business processes and systems; without significant monitoring and updating, these systems can become incompatible with the business. When this occurs, the business may become less productive. This happened before the year 2000. Companies of all sizes needed to evaluate their computer and business systems to ensure compatibility with the change of the calendar from the year 1999 to 2000 (Sano, 1997). If a company did not address the issue, the company could have needed to have spent significant dollars to continue "doing business as usual." 

      Y2K is just one example of how business systems and processes can age and not adapt over time. Companies and business leaders face the issue of business systems or processes not being adapted or changed with the business on a routine basis. Business leaders at all levels of an organization (from the top of the organization all the way down to line management) need to understand. First, business systems and processes do age and need to be adapted to keep up with the changing market and business needs. Second, the value of the business can be positively or negatively affected by the number of business processes updated or neglected. Third, suppose the experiences and actions of managers can be examined. In that case, there may be a way to address the entropy of business systems and processes through the standard business planning, business strategy, and change management tools that already exist within the business. 

Summary

      Much research has been done that shows how Lehman's theory on entropy in computer systems can be applied to business systems. This research appears to focus primarily on two things. The first is how the theory can be adequately applied to business processes and systems. The second is the result of entropy in business systems and processes. No study has examined how managers' actions are modified based on their experiences with entropy in business systems. Once the actions of middle managers are understood, it will be possible for future research to be conducted that will allow for the development of new tools and methodologies that can benefit businesses in addressing this entropy on a more regular basis through the traditional business planning, business strategy, and change management processes. Ultimately this may allow companies to have greater visibility into the actions of their leaders and provide insights into entropy within business systems and processes that middle managers are managing. 

      This research proposal is broken into three chapters. Chapter two is a review of the literature. This review starts with the original theory of entropy within a computer system (Lehman, 1980) and flows through to the proposal by Huysmans et al. (2012) that Lehman's theory of entropy can be applied to business systems and processes. Chapter three outlines how the research will be designed, the procedures used to gather research data, and how the data will be processed once it is collected. 

      

 

 

Chapter 2: Literature Review

      The first fifteen years of my career were spent developing software computer systems for companies large and small. After fifteen years, I became very interested in organizational leadership. One day while working on a legacy software computer system that needed significant updates, someone came into my office asking how we could adapt a business process to a new client requirement. I switched contexts and answered the question. As I started to think about the technology problem, I had a thought, "why don't we look at the issues and limitations institutions develop over time the same way we do computer software? Both are comprised of computer systems and processes, so wouldn't the same theories used to resolve these issues with software apply to institutions?" 

      This revelation led to my continued interest in institutionalized decisions in an organization. These decisions are causing issues in the growth and adaptation of the business to meet the needs of owners, employees, and customers. I began to wonder how a company overcame the self-imposed limitations of these institutionalized processes. At this point, I helped a company go through a "digital transformation" project. At the end of this project, a new company was launched. This company had new updated processes and computer systems. It was the same as when we released a new software product version. At this point, the concept came full circle for me, and I decided I needed to determine if the laws of software design have been or could be applied to an organization (or institution). If they could, how do middle-level managers' actions change based on their experiences with outdated business processes? 

Research Strategy

      The strategy utilized for this literature review was to use Google Scholar, Worldcat Discovery, and OneSearch computer systems to identify relevant articles that would:

A. identify and establish the foundational elements for the concept of "technical debt" (also called program evolution and processes for software change),

B. research and review if any of the concepts of program evolution or process for software change have been formally applied to computer systems within institutions, and 

C. validate that institutional processes can be viewed or characterized as computer systems.

D. Determine where the theory concept of entropy has been applied to business systems.

      Much of the foundational research was performed by Manny Lehman. This research occurred when Lehman was employed by International Business Machines (IBM) and was considered proprietary and confidential. Lehman was instrumental in getting this research tagged as non-confidential so that it could be shared with his fellow technologists. Lehman also collected his and others' research and published the studies in a book titled Program Evolution (Lehman & Belady, 1985). This collection of essays and documents has proven invaluable in helping this author establish the foundational elements of "technical debt."

      Below is a comprehensive list of search terms used to generate review materials for this document.

A. Organizational evolution

B. Organizational evolution similarities to software laws of software evolution

C. The history of technical debt

D. Program evolution processes of software change applied to institutions

E. Definition of fault

F. Definition of use case

G. Definition of organization

H. Business process versioning

I. Cost of not changing business processes

J. The cost of business process entropy

K. Entropy in a business process context

L. Search of where the journal article "On the Applicability of the Notion of Entropy for Business Process Analysis" has been cited in other articles or studies

M. Search of where the journal article "Confirming Design Guidelines for Evolvable Business Processes Based On The Concept of Entropy" has been cited in other articles or studies

N. Search of where Lehman's 1966 article "A Survey of Problems and Preliminary Results Concerning Parallel Processing and Parallel Processors" has been cited in other articles or studies

O. Search of where Lehman's 1980 article "Programs, Life Cycles, and Laws of Software Evolution" has been cited in other articles or studies.

The Evolution of Programs Research

      In 1968, Manny Lehman was asked by the head of IBM's research group to "undertake a study of programming in IBM and to propose research projects that could seek ways to improve the Corporation's capability in that area" (Lehman & Belady, 1985). The conclusion of this research proposed that for a computer system to be fully utilized, an organization should create criteria around design only after the conception of the processes within the computer system are evaluated (Herraiz et al., 2013). 

      This conclusion led to the second phase of research. In this second phase, Lehman was asked to examine and develop an overall design of an executive function that could be used to assist in overall computer system design (Lehman & Belady, 1985). Upon review of the research from the first and second phases, the executives at IBM realized only a small part of the problem was solved (Lehman & Belady, 1985) and that there was a much larger issue with the methods and methodologies being used to design computer systems (Lehman, 1996) . 

      After the second phase of Lehman's research, Lehman explained that the single biggest challenge to computer system creation was examining how the computer system was designed (Lehman & Belady, 1985). Lehman surmised that due to the rapid development of computer systems in different isolated environments, little integration or experience was shared between the various teams (Lehman, 1996). This lack of transfer of expertise offered a significant opportunity for computer systems to be better designed and better integrated (Bianchi et al., 2001). 

Computer Systems Evolution

Levels of Evolution

Table 1 - Levels of Process / Computer Systems Evolution

Level of Evolution

Who is Involved

How is Feedback Received

Timeframe for Evolution

Local Design

Individuals

Creators Observations

Days to Weeks

Testing

Group Using System or Process

Testing Process

Weeks to Months

Release

Organizational Users

Users and Process Creators

Months to Years

Next Generation

Broader Organization

Real World Feedback Based on Usage

Years to Decades

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  Computer System Dynamics

Limits To Growth for Computer Systems and Processes

An Approach to Computer systems (and Process) Creation

The Continuous Changes of Computer Systems

Applications of Entropy In The Analysis of Business Processes

      Huysmans et al. (2012) outline how the notion of systems entropy could be applied to the analysis of business processes. Huysmans et al. (2012), explain that over the years, the various names given to this issue include total quality management and business process reengineering. Although similar to the notion of entropy, these various different methodologies tend to focus on how projects are managed versus how the processes are evaluated (Oorts et al., 2014). 

Use of Huysmans et al. (2012) Research in Different Studies 

Illustration

Author's Analysis

Gaps in Literature

Summary

 

Chapter 3: Research Design and Method

      This study was a qualitative phenomenological study to explore how the experiences of managers affect their actions when experiencing entropy within a business system or process. This chapter will be broken into nine sections. The first section is the research question. The second is the research design philosophy being utilized in this study. The third section is an understanding of how the population and sample size of the population were determined for this study. The fourth section contains the procedures used for this study that outline all aspects of the study, from recruiting, to data collection, to any follow-up that may be required of the study participants. The fifth section outlines all threats to the study's validity, including ensuring credibility, dependability, confirmability, and transferability. The sixth section explains the instrumentation used to collect data in this study. The seventh section describes the tools to be used to process data for this study. The eighth section outlines the assumptions that had to be made by the researcher or by participants for the study to occur. The ninth section describes any limitations of this study. The tenth section describes the ethical assurances made to the participants by the researcher that their information and identity would be kept confidential.

Research Question

      Huysmans et al. (2012) propose Lehman's concept of entropy within a software system (Lehman, 1980) can be applied to the aging of business processes used to run and manage work through a business. The work of Huysmans et al. (2012) that proposes this theory has been cited eight times. Still, none of the citations belonged to a study examining how managers' lived experiences modify their actions when experiencing entropy within business systems or processes.  

      Because no study has examined the actions and experiences of managers, research will be performed in this study to explore this topic. The following research question (and sub-questions) will be utilized in this examination. RQ: What are managers lived experiences with business systems' entropy (aging)? The one sub-question that will be used to ground the study further is:

1. Does an organization having a formal way to identify and update aging business processes and systems change the experiences of the managers? How does having a formal way to identify and update aging business processes and systems change the experiences of the managers?

Research Design Philosophy

      This study used the interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) method of phenomenology.  IPA was selected because it focuses on the participant's "personal perception of an event. (Smith et al., 1999)." Demuth and Mey (2015) outline IPA as focusing on the "subjective experiences" of the participants as it relates to the topic being studied. 

      Eatough et al. (2017) describe the history of IPA as having "both a long and short history." IPA was first introduced in the United Kingdom in the 1990s (Eatough et al., 2017). Although IPA's articulation was somewhat recent, IPA descends from the components of phenomenology and hermeneutics (Eatough, 2012). 

      Miller & Barrio Minton (2016) explain that, unlike phenomenology, which tries to examine a specific topic experienced by a group of people, IPA focuses on how individuals perceive their own experiences of events. The researcher investigates this perception to derive meaning from the experiences of the study subject (Fuster Guillen, 2019).  Typically, the results of an IPA study cannot be applied to a large group of people but instead shed insights into how the individuals interviewed experienced and perceived the topic being studied (Smith et al., 1999).

      Phenomenology originated in Europe in the early 20th century (Zahavi, 2018). Phenomenology uses deep descriptions and analysis of the lived experience of study participants to understand the perception of a topic (Starks & Brown Trinidad, 2007). Sokolowski (2017) explains that phenomenology interviews may state what is already known, but these already known statements help the researcher understand the study participants' experience. Only by understanding the various and different experiences of the study participants can the researcher find the common elements of the events experienced (Starks & Brown Trinidad, 2007). When phenomenology is used to frame a research question, the researcher looks to explore the lived experiences of the study participants (Manen, 2016).

Population and Sample

Sample

      Determining the sample size for a qualitative study can be challenging (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). An appropriate initial sample size should be selected that allows for a complete exploration of the topic while not being overly redundant in the answers received by the participants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Mason (2010) analyzed the correct sample size to reach saturation in qualitative studies. They found a wide range of answers to the sample size question. The range for phenomenological studies ranged from greater than five to 25. Morse (2000) outlines several different factors that need to be considered to determine appropriate sample sizes. Because phenomenology uses unstructured interviews and typically has multiple interviews with each study participant, the amount of data that needs to be analyzed is significant. Therefore, fewer study participants are required (Morse, 2000). Morse (2000) says as few as six participants may be necessary to perform a good phenomenological study.

      No studies similar to the proposed study (the application of a phenomenological study to business process) could be located. Because of this, three phenomenological studies that focused on business organizations were selected to evaluate the sample size. The first study, A Phenomenological Study Of Business Graduates' Employment Experiences In The Changing Economy by Campbell (2018), had a total sample size of ten. The second study, An Investigation Of Knowledge Sharing Phenomenon Among IT Engineers: An Interpretative Phenomenological Perspective by Somali (2018), had a total of ten participants. The third study, Business Decision Making: A Phenomenological Approach by Norman (1967), had a total sample size of ten.  

      For this study, there was a sample size of ten. This number was based on achieving the expected reasonable coverage of the phenomenon given the purpose of that study (Patton, 2016), and the examination of previous phenomenological studies that had occurred in a business setting. If new insights had continued to be discovered in the conversations with the ninth and tenth participants (Patton, 2016), the study size would have been expanded to twelve.

Population

      The population for the study consisted of managers of people or projects within a business who had at least five years of experience in management roles. For the period the participant was discussing, the participant's company had to have been in business for at least three years and have had at least 25 employees. The study participants were not limited to people who worked for technology companies and could come from any industry. The participants were recruited through a snowball sampling e-mail campaign that started with the researchers' personal network, an ad placed on LinkedIn. The focus of the LinkedIn solicitations took place in the following LinkedIn groups:

1. Forbes CIO Network - 8,306 members

2. CTO Group - 11,054 members

3. Technology Executive Networking Group - 1,554 members

4. Saint Louis University Alumni Association - 7,744 members

5. Dallas Blue Business Network - 29, 488 members

6. CIO Exchange - 7,430 members

7. LinkedIn CXO Network - 43,999 members

      Although there are industry reports such as the Thompson Reuters Top 100 Global Technology Leaders (2018), The Top 80 CIOs You Should Know in 2021 (Boudinet, 2020), and 2021 US CIO 100 winners: Celebrating IT Innovation and Leadership (staff, 2021) the researcher feared that limiting participants to individuals just on these types of lists would significantly reduce the diversity of thought and experience within the study. For this reason, these types of lists were not used to recruit participants. Instead, broader groups such as the LinkedIn groups listed above were used to gather a more diverse group of participants. By utilizing the LinkedIn groups, the researcher hoped to gather leaders not just with a technology background but also leaders who were are at different levels within organizations. 

Procedures

Recruiting Procedures

      Participants were recruited for that study in two ways. The first way was through a snowball sampling campaign sent from the researcher's e-mail address to people within his network who may have been a good fit for the study. To ensure impartiality, the researcher did not solicit any person who was currently working for or had worked for the researcher in the past three years. The second was through a post on LinkedIn that described the study and asked for volunteers to be a part of the study. 

      Once participants were identified, they were sent a pre-study questionnaire to qualify them for the study. The questions on the pre-study questionnaire were:

1. Are you a mid-level manager of people or projects?

2. How many years have you been in the role at the company you would like to discuss?

3. How old is the company you would like to discuss?

4. How many employees did the company you would like to discuss have when working there?

If the participant's pre-study questionnaire had the following acceptable answers for each question, they were allowed into the study. 

1. Are you a mid-level manager of people or projects? The answer must be yes.

2. How many years have you been in the role at the company you would like to discuss? The answer must be five years or greater.

3. How old is the company you would like to discuss? The answer must be three years or greater.

4. How many employees did the company you would like to discuss have when working there? The answer must be 25 or more employees.

Data Collection

Validity

Credibility

Pilot Study 

Validation Committee

Dependability

Confirmability

      The confirmability of a qualitative study depends on the proper use of the instrument that is created for the study (Patton, 2014). It is also important for the researcher to accept that since they are human and created the survey instrument, the survey instrument will be flawed (Patton, 2014). If a qualitative study is not performed objectively by the researcher, it will be considered biased, and the study's confirmability will be questioned (Shenton, 2004). A detailed audit trail for each participant was kept to make this study as confirmable as possible. This audit trail included all contact with the study participants and artifacts for all data collected from each participant. By having this audit trail, it was possible to describe the step-by-step measures taken to ensure the study is confirmable. 

Transferability

Instrumentation

      The instrument for this qualitative study was the researcher, who conducted interviews using the following twelve questions.

Questions That Tie Back To The Main Research Question: 

What are managers lived experiences with business systems' entropy (aging)?

1. Describe how you experienced the work environment when dealing with an inefficient organizational process.

2. How do you experience process improvements at work?

4. How did the inefficient organizational process impact your work towards the organizational goals?

5. When dealing with an inefficient organizational process, how did organizational culture shape your behaviors and actions?

7. Describe how the inefficient organizational process impacted working with your teammates.

8. Describe how you experienced the work environment when dealing with an inefficient technology system.

8a: How did the inefficient technology system impact your work toward organizational goals?

8b: How did the inefficient technology system impact working with your teammates?

Questions That Tie Back to Subquestion One: 

Does an organization having a formal way to identify and update aging business processes and systems change the experiences of the managers?

9. How do you experience updates to organizational processes and strategic direction at work?

10. If you are not able to execute changes to aging organizational processes, describe how not being able to make theses changes or modifications potentially affected the outcomes of the business.

Data Processing

      Interviews were conducted using Zoom, and those interviews were recorded. Once the interview was completed, the recording was transcribed and audited for accuracy. Once the transcriptions completed auditing, they were imported into MaxQDA, where they were analyzed and coded. All interview transcriptions were placed within MaxQDA to ensure process consistency. 

      Once coding was completed in MaxQDA, the analysis tools within MaxQDA were used to examine if there was a common experience across the study participants. Output from MaxQDA was used to analyze the conversations, draw conclusions, and make recommendations for the study.

      The analysis process outlined by Smith et al. (2022) was utilized for that study. The analysis process consisted of eight steps. The first step was to perform an examination of each line of the transcripts to ensure a thorough understanding of the study participants. The second step was to identify patterns and broad topics within the interviews. The third step was to examine the data that had been processed, focusing on what the participants "might mean" in their responses. The fourth step was to develop a framework that interlinked the patterns and topics between participants. The fifth step was to arrange all materials to provide a clear path between the interviews, analysis, themes, and conclusions. The sixth step was to perform an audit to validate the logic and soundness of the data interpretations. The seventh step was to develop a complete description, backed by comprehensive data extracts, which allowed people to understand the researcher's interpretation. The eighth step was to provide observations from the researcher's perspective on the process and outcome.

Assumptions

      Three assumptions were made for this study. The first was that the participants in the study were honest when they relayed their experiences and were also honest in how they answered the questions being asked. The second was that IPA was the best methodology for studying that topic. The third was that the work performed by Huysmans et al. (2012) in laying out the concept of Lehman's concept of entropy in computer systems being applied to business systems was sound. 

Limitations

      The study was subject to two constraints. One constraint pertains to the potential unacknowledged biases of the participants, which might not have been revealed during their interviews. The second constraint involves the possible influence of the researcher's own biases, rooted in their experiences as a business professional, which could have imposed limitations on the interpretation of the data collected in the course of the study.

Ethical Assurances

      Before starting any participant recruiting, it was necessary to receive the approval of the dissertation committee for that research proposal. Once approval was received, an application was submitted to the Institutional Review Board (IRB). Any changes suggested by the Institutional Review Board were made to the proposal, and the proposal was resubmitted for approval. Once approval was received from the IRB, participant recruiting began.

      Participants were recruited through the researcher's personal network and an outreach campaign on LinkedIn. To ensure impartiality, the researcher did not solicit any person who was currently working for or had worked for the researcher in the past three years. Participants of that study were not anonymous, but their identities were confidential to everyone outside of the researcher. Once a participant acknowledged they would like to be part of the study, they were presented with a consent form that the IRB had approved. This consent form had to be agreed to on video recording prior to the interview starting. If a person did not agree to the consent form, they were not allowed to participate in the study.

      All commercially reasonable efforts were made to keep the data collected safe. This included encrypting all data when it was at rest (this included when data was being backed up) and securing any physical data in a locked cabinet within a locked office when it was not being utilized for that study. All personally identifiable information was removed from transcripts and analysis software to ensure complete confidentiality of the data for the participants.  

Summary

      That study was based on the work performed by Lehman (1980) and Huysmans et al. (2012). It focused on the following research question RQ: What are managers lived experiences with business systems' entropy (aging)? The one sub-question that will be used to ground the study further is:

1. Does an organization having a formal way to identify and update aging business processes and systems change the experiences of the managers?

      This was a phenomenological study that focused on understanding the lived experiences of the study participants. Due to Covid, all interviews were conducted through recorded Zoom interviews. Although not optimum, conducting the interviews via Zoom allowed the study participants to be studied as close to their environment as possible (Creswell & Poth, 2018). 

      The sample size for that qualitative study was ten participants. Ten participants were chosen because that number was expected to provide a "reasonable coverage of the phenomenon being studied (Patton, 2016)". To take part in the study, participants needed to have worked at their company for at least three years, and the company they worked at must have had more than 25 employees and have been in business for more than five years.

      Participants for the study were recruited in two ways. The first way was through a direct e-mail campaign sent to the researcher's contacts using the researcher's e-mail address. To ensure impartiality, the researcher did not solicit any person who was currently working for or had worked for the researcher in the past three years. The second was through a post on LinkedIn asking for study participants. Once study participants were identified, each participant was given a pre-study questionnaire to determine if the participant met the requirements to be in the study.

      When a participant met the requirements, all necessary consents and instructions were gone through. Once the consent was agreed to, the researcher interviewed the participant, and this meeting was recorded using Zoom. When the interview concluded, the Zoom recording was transcribed. This transcription was reviewed for accuracy, and once confirmed accurate, all personally identifiable information was removed so that data remained confidential. The newly scrubbed data was loaded into MaxQDA for analysis.

      MaxQDA was the tool used to code interviews. Once the interview transcript was loaded into MaxQDA, the researcher coded the interview and looked for themes across all interviews. Should the researcher have discovered new insights that required follow-up with the study participants, the researcher scheduled a follow-up conversation.

      It is important to note that this study was contingent on the approval of the Institutional Review Board (IRB). If the IRB required changes to the survey or how the study was conducted, the researcher performed the necessary changes and applied for IRB approval again. No data collection occurred before the IRB approval for this study.

      To ensure the confidentiality of the study participants, any identifiable information recorded during the Zoom sessions was changed during the transcription and data loading process. All electronic data was also encrypted so that it could not be accessed by anyone other than the researcher. 

 

Chapter 4: Findings

      Chapter 4 delves into a comprehensive analysis of the research results. The initial segment focuses on the processes involved in participant recruitment and their demographic profiles. Subsequently, it offers a synopsis of the primary themes and associated subthemes that surfaced from the gathered data. The third section examines the results under each identified theme and subtheme. In the fourth section, the findings are assessed across the various demographic categories of participants. The chapter concludes with a summary of the key findings.

Pilot Study

      A pilot study was conducted to verify the appropriateness of the survey tool for the broader population. This initial investigation involved two participants who did not fulfill all the criteria for the study. Both participants were interviewed using the proposed questions. After analyzing the responses, the researcher found that the answers did not align with the expected outcome. Specifically, the participants focused on technological entropy instead of entropy in non-technological business systems and processes.

      Upon examination of the interview questions, it became evident that the term "outdated" led the participants to consider technology rather than business processes. To resolve this issue, "outdated" was replaced with "inefficient" in the survey questions. The two participants from the preliminary study were informed about the change and agreed that making the wording change shifted their focus toward business processes.

      Before finalizing the modified survey questions, the researcher convened a panel of three experts with experience in both technological and business systems entropy. The panel unanimously concurred that the change in wording was necessary to collect data relevant to the study of entropy within business systems.

      After receiving the agreement of both the study participants and the expert panel, the researcher made the required alterations to the interview questions. These revisions were reviewed and approved by the dissertation chair. The updated questions were then finalized and prepared for use with the non-pilot members of the study.

Setting

      Those who met the study criteria and were deemed eligible were contacted to schedule an interview appointment. They were advised that the interview would take approximately an hour and that they would be using Zoom to communicate with the researcher. Before the interview, the participants were provided with the informed consent documentation. Most participants joined the Zoom call from either their homes or offices. The researcher reviewed the informed consent documents with the participant and obtained their verbal agreement before commencing the interviews.

      The researcher conducted each interview in an enclosed office measuring 30 square feet, which was located on the second floor of an office building. The office contained a single window with closed blinds during the interviews. The height of the office and the closed blinds ensured that the participants could not be observed by anyone passing by. As a result, the office provided ample privacy and was suitable for maintaining the confidentiality of the participants' identities.

      Demographics

      The study participants exhibited diverse backgrounds and positions within their respective organizations (Table 2). Out of the total participants, seven were male, while three were female. This gender distribution reflects the variety of perspectives that the study aimed to capture. Furthermore, the participants' tenure at their companies varied significantly, providing insights from individuals with different experience levels. Six participants had been employed at their company for 5-10 years, one had worked for 11-15 years, and three had 16-20 years of tenure.

      The age and size of the companies involved in the study were also diverse, contributing to a broad understanding of the subject matter. One company was relatively young, aged 3-10 years, while the other nine companies had been in operation for at least a decade. In terms of size, one company had a workforce of 25-100 employees, whereas the remaining nine companies were larger, each employing more than 250 individuals. This mix of company profiles allowed the study to encompass various organizational structures and dynamics.

      The participants in the study also represented different hierarchical levels within their organizations, ensuring a comprehensive view of the issues being examined. Two participants held executive roles, four were senior managers, and four were frontline managers. This diverse array of positions provided valuable insights from multiple vantage points within the organizations, contributing to a more robust and nuanced understanding of the subject matter. 

Table 2 - Participant Demographics

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Gender

 

 

Length Of Employment At Company

 

 

Company Age

 

 

Company Size

 

 

Level Within Organization

 

Male

7

 

5-10 Years

6

 

3-10 Years

1

 

25-100 Employees

1

 

Executive

2

Female

3

 

11-15 Years

1

 

10+ Years

9

 

More Than 250 

9

 

Senior Manager

4

 

 

 

16-20 Years

3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Frontline Manager

4

 

Paul

      Paul is a skilled male manager and has between 5-10 years of experience at a well-established company in Missouri. With the organization being over 10 years old and having more than 250 employees, Paul has proven to be an important asset in driving the company's success. As a manager, he holds a high-level position and is responsible for leading a team towards achieving business objectives. Paul is a confident and strategic thinker who enjoys working collaboratively with others to achieve results. With his knowledge and experience, he is a leader who is dedicated to ensuring the success of his team and the organization as a whole.

Roger

      Roger is a highly experienced male executive who has been with a well-established company in Texas for 16-20 years. With the organization being over 10 years old and having more than 250 employees, Roger has become an integral part of the company's leadership team. As an executive, he holds a high-level position and is responsible for overseeing the strategic direction of the organization. Roger is a skilled and visionary leader who is adept at identifying opportunities for growth, optimization, and success. With his deep understanding of the industry, he is highly respected both within the company and by his peers in the wider business community. Roger is committed to ensuring the continued success of the organization and its employees and is dedicated to achieving excellence in all aspects of his work. 

Nathan

      Nathan is a male manager with 5-10 years of experience at a reputable company in France. With the company established for over a decade and having a workforce of more than 250 employees, Nathan has played a pivotal role in contributing to the organization's achievements. As a high-level manager, he is responsible for leading his team in accomplishing business goals. Nathan is a proficient communicator and collaborator who thrives on teamwork to achieve desired outcomes. His expertise and knowledge have earned him respect as a leader who is committed to the company's and employees' success. Nathan constantly seeks new approaches to promote growth and improve performance within the organization.

Jerry

      Jerry is a male manager with 16-20 years of experience at an established company in Texas. With the organization being over a decade old and having a workforce of more than 250 employees, Jerry has played a crucial role in contributing to the company's growth and success. As a high-level manager, he is responsible for leading his team to accomplish business objectives while also demonstrating political savvy to navigate complex organizational dynamics. Jerry values teamwork and collaboration to achieve desired outcomes. Jerry is committed to promoting a culture of continuous improvement and quality within the organization to achieve long-term success, while also being adept at managing the political landscape to effectively achieve his team's goals.

Louise

      Louise is a female frontline manager with 5-10 years of experience at a well-established company in Virginia. With the organization being over a decade old and having a workforce of more than 250 employees, Louise has demonstrated her competence and expertise in her role. She is smart and analytical, with a keen eye for detail and a results-driven approach. However, she is also known to be impatient and may take an unorthodox approach to achieve her objectives. Louise is known for her creativity and flexibility and is a valuable asset. She is required to operate within the company's policies and guidelines and is a respected leader who is dedicated to the success of the company and her team.

Kyle

      Kyle is a male executive with 5-10 years of experience at a well-regarded company in Pennsylvania. With the organization being over a decade old and having a workforce of more than 250 employees, Kyle has established himself as a leader who commands admiration and respect from his colleagues. He places a strong emphasis on processes and procedures, ensuring that his team adheres to established guidelines. Kyle is known for his adherence to rules and standards, and his meticulous attention to detail has earned him the respect of his colleagues. Despite his strict approach, he is approachable and supportive of his team, always seeking to achieve the best possible outcomes for the company.

Craig

      Craig is a male manager with more than 16-20 years of experience at a company located in the DC area. With the organization being over a decade old and having a workforce of more than 250 employees, Craig is a seasoned leader. He has a deep understanding of the rules and regulations of his work environment. Craig has built strong relationships with his peers and supervisors, earning their trust and respect. While he may approach new trainees with initial suspicion, he is always open to giving them a chance to prove themselves and is supportive of their growth and development. Craig is deeply invested in the success of the organization and his team.

Amy

      Amy is a female frontline manager with 5-10 years of experience at a company located in Wisconsin. With the organization being 3-10 years old and having a workforce of 25-100 employees, Amy is a caring and dedicated leader. She has a genuine desire to serve her clients and colleagues to the best of her ability. As a frontline manager, Amy is responsible for ensuring that her team performs at their best and that day-to-day operations run smoothly. Despite the challenges that come with managing a team, Amy remains approachable and supportive, creating a positive work environment. Her commitment and dedication to her work have earned her the respect of her colleagues, making her a valuable member of the organization.

Sheila

      Sheila is a female frontline manager with 5-10 years of experience at a company located in the DC area. With the organization being over a decade old and having a workforce of more than 250 employees, Sheila is a confident and driven leader. She is known for her willingness to speak her mind and push her team to achieve their best. As a frontline manager, Sheila is committed to ensuring that her team delivers their work with excellence, and she is a hard worker who always follows through on her commitments. Her dedication and commitment to her work have earned her the respect of her colleagues, who value her as a leader who drives positive change. 

Charles

      Charles is a male manager with 11-15 years of experience at a company located in Missouri. With the organization being over a decade old and having a workforce of more than 250 employees, Charles is an experienced and knowledgeable leader. He is highly skilled in navigating complex political situations and understands the potential consequences of decisions made within the organization. As a manager, Charles is committed to holding people at all levels of the company accountable for their actions. His colleagues respect his ability to make informed decisions and guide the team towards success. 

Results

Themes and Subthemes

      The findings are based on data collected through semi-structured interviews with the participants. The questions for the interview were created and aligned with the conceptual framework to answer the research question: What are managers lived experiences with business systems' entropy (aging)? Four themes emerged when answering the research question. These themes were: (a) intrinsic motivation, (b) ubiquitous frustration, (c) facilitated collaboration and (d) perfunctory acquiescence. Intrinsic motivation describes the inclination of participants to take actions to enhance their work environment, job satisfaction, or performance, which may lead to a virtuous cycle of continuous improvement and growth, both for the participant and their organization as a whole. Ubiquitous frustration describes the participant's experiences of widespread dissatisfaction, annoyance, and discontent often encountered in their work and work relationships. Facilitated collaboration explains a participant's ability to cooperate effectively with peers, supervisors, and subordinates is significantly influenced by the quality of their relationships within the organization. Finally, perfunctory acquiescence describes a participant's compliance with mandated process improvement without genuine enthusiasm or commitment. Table 3 shows the total number of coded segments for each theme and subtheme and the percentage of total coded segments for each theme. 

Table 3 - Theme and Subtheme Frequency In Coded Segments

 

Total Number of Coded Segments

Percentage of All Coded Segments

Theme 1: Intrinsic Motivation Total Theme and Subtheme

305

49.27%

Coded Segments Directly Attributed To Intrinsic Motivation

74

 

Subtheme 1-1: Personal Empowerment

121

 

Subtheme 1-2: Relevant Problems

110

 

Theme 2: Ubiquitous Frustration Total Theme and Subtheme

132

21.32%

Coded Segments Directly Attributed To Ubiquitous Frustration

59

 

Subtheme 2-1: Positive Attitude

27

 

Subtheme 2-2: Self Preservation

46

 

Theme 3: Facilitated Collaboration Total Theme and Subtheme

95

15.35%

Coded Segments Directly Attributed To Facilitated Collaboration

28

 

Subtheme 3-1: Nurturing Understanding

45

 

Subtheme 3-2: Relational Influence

22

 

Theme 4: Perfunctory Acquiescence Total Theme and Subtheme

65

10.50%

Coded Segments Directly Attributed To Perfunctory Acquiescence 

31

 

Subtheme 4-1: Unquestioning Compliance

23

 

Subtheme 4-2: Bare Minimum

11

 

SQ1: Does an organization having a formal way to identify and update aging business processes and systems change the experiences of the managers?

 

 

Outcome Focus

22

3.55%

Total Coded Segments For Themes and Sub Question

619

100%

 

Theme 1: Intrinsic Motivation

      Intrinsic motivation describes the participants' internal drive to improve their work environment, satisfaction, or performance for themselves and their overall organization. The message of intrinsic motivation suggests that internal factors drive individuals to perform well and feel fulfilled in their work. However, external barriers, such as a lack of resources or support, can hinder their ability to succeed and achieve their goals. Despite these obstacles, however, participants demonstrate an inner drive to overcome them. Their desire to create and implement improvements remains strong, even in the face of adversity. This determination helps them to find new and creative ways to overcome obstacles and achieve their goals. Ultimately, intrinsic motivation suggests that the strength of the participants' internal drive enables them to overcome external barriers and drive toward success.

      This theme includes the codes (a) status quo is not moving forward; (b) participant has a desire to help; (c) participants want to take action, (d) performing at your best; (e) desire to improve; (f) participant wants to perform work. Intrinsic motivation includes three subthemes: Personal empowerment, relevant problems, and outcome focused. Personal empowerment is a participant's desire to take independent action to change organizational processes. Relevant problems describes the need of participants to ensure the correct problem is being addressed when a proposed process change is heavily suggested by individuals higher up in the organization. Outcome focused describes a participant's method, mentality, or plan which highlights the significance of reaching particular objectives or outcomes. 

Subtheme 1-1: Personal Empowerment 

      Personal empowerment describes a participant's desire to have the ability to take independent action to change organizational processes. This desired action can range in behaviors from independently identifying inefficient processes that need to be made more efficient in the organization to appropriately pushing back on decisions made to improve processes by higher-up managers without the managers having consulted with the teams performing the processes. 

      Many participants expressed wanting to have the ability to influence change within their organizations. This desired influence varies between proactively examining issues and making recommendations to being included in brainstorming sessions with management to ensure the employee's voice is heard in the change management proposes. Regarding his desire to be able to influence decisions, Craig explained: 

So that's what you need to act, and this is where you can be frustrated more, but you know what you can change when you have your circle of influence, where you don't necessarily control everything, but you can influence some change.

      Although participants wanted to have the ability to influence change, they also wanted to have the ability to drive for regular, consistent advancement of business processes. The participants appeared committed to excellence and growth. Jerry described how this progress is classified as continuous improvement, explaining, "[this] falls into the area of continuous improvement if it makes the current state better than what the prior state was." The participants described continuous improvement in different ways. Nathan describes how "micro-steps" were used to improve gradually:

One of the key inefficient processes was over validation, over validation in terms of tasks, so too much meetings to validate. So micro steps validation, not efficient enough in different functions, product, marketing, design, and also engineering. So, we're doing some micro steps.

Amy describes how large-scale changes were initiated to improve continuously:

One of the standards was that each kid coming into out of home care gets a screen, mental health of six and older, developmental if they're five and young. And these screens were being done at doctor's offices, or wherever, but they were not necessarily being done consistently or efficient. So, they went back to the state stakeholders and said, what if we trained our staff on how to do the screens? And now, state stakeholders said, okay, try it and see what happens. And the rate of getting these screens done within the required timeframes went from like 37 percent to like 80 percent.

      The participants' desire for continuous improvement seems strongly linked to a powerful inner drive to enhance their work environments, driven by a yearning for growth and development. This self-generated motivation fuels their aspiration to enhance and refine processes within their workplace over time. 

      Continually evolving processes within the organization was an essential topic for participants, but participants also expressed how simply maintaining the current situation was unacceptable to them. The participants did not think it was enough just to move forward and that a proactive approach to growth and development was required. Paul described how doing what has always been done is not moving forward by saying, "so, if you stayed doing what you're doing today, you're not going anywhere, you're never improving." Chris' example of how doing what has always been done was not moving forward by saying, "we cannot be stuck in the same position, otherwise this is not progress."

You are faced with the conundrum of understanding, or at least with dealing with the question of whether it's the process, the people, the organization itself because the inefficient process doesn't always reveal itself as being the problem immediately.

Sheila provided an example of how she employed a method of inquiry to drive process improvement:

And even though I had asked the questions like, hey, have you ever considered that now that we have these many projects that are active, and we actually have project teams now that those teams can meet at a time that's more convenient for them, and then just report up at a smaller meeting, versus everyone staying on this call for two hours, sometimes two and a half hours?

Actively questioning decisions is an effective tool closely tied to a participant's innate drive for self-improvement. Participants who strongly desire personal and professional growth actively pursue opportunities to learn, explore new perspectives, and challenge assumptions. By engaging in inquiry, they can gain fresh insights, refine their goals, and pinpoint areas for growth and development.

      Personal empowerment and the yearning for autonomous action within an organization are deeply intertwined with an inner drive for betterment. The study participants demonstrated a genuine interest in honing their skills and abilities. They eagerly examined and discussed their work environment, proactively engaging in finding solutions and improvements. Their unwavering determination to enact change and pursue continuous improvement reflects an internal commitment to excellence and growth fueled by their inherent passion.

      Moreover, the participant's tendency to question and challenge decisions made by senior management highlights their dedication to the ongoing growth and advancement of the organization. This progressive mindset for development and progress stems from their ambition to elevate their professional lives and achieve their full potential. They crave personal empowerment and autonomy in driving organizational change by actively seeking opportunities to learn, examine new viewpoints, and confront preconceptions.

      In conclusion, this inner drive fosters progress, prompting participants to ask vital questions, gain new understanding, and identify areas for growth. Ultimately, these efforts contribute to the overall success of their organization. The participants' unwavering commitment to self-improvement and organizational development demonstrates the power of an inherent passion for growth and excellence.

Subtheme 1-2: Relevant Problems 

      Relevant problems describe a participant's desire to ensure a proposed process change addresses the correct problem. During the study, participants relayed experiences where others proposed organizational process changes. In the participant's experience, these proposed process changes did not address the underlying process problem, and once implemented, the process change created more issues than if the change did not occur. 

      Participants expressed a noticeable gap in detailed knowledge between the teams executing daily processes and upper management. Some participants explained this gap as being nuances within the processes being executed. Jerry gave a detailed example of how nuances affect the day-to-day processes his team uses:

That's another example where it is a standalone, it's not integrated to anything else that we utilize. So, we're exporting to excel, we're importing into Smartsheet. Things like the warehouse management system, it does integrate with our ERP in the US, but it doesn't integrate with our ERP in Hungary. So just the variation from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, much less country to country can also provide, all right, I need to calibrate my brain as I'm thinking about this particular challenge.

Paul explained how nuances occur when an organization is located in different markets. Paul explained, "so, you're going to have some nuances. I mean, if you're dealing with Nebraska, and you're dealing with New York, two different markets, right."

But at the same point in time, I think looking at how we can leverage current resources, which there's not a lot of bandwidth, people are already being stretched thin. But how do we leverage what we do have available?

"If it's internal, the other issue is, are they doing it off the side of their desk, or is it part of their normal course of business? Is that their goal? Because if they're doing it outside of their desk, they're going to have multiple other priorities that are being pulled upon."

      The participants' pursuit of efficient and effective problem-solving indicates their inner motivation to excel in their roles and make a meaningful contribution to their organization. Their reason stems from a desire to feel satisfied and accomplished in their work, which is a powerful incentive to find smarter ways of working. As these individuals are internally driven to optimize their performance and discover innovative solutions, they tend to engage in activities that facilitate growth and success in their roles. This motivation subsequently fosters the creation of enhanced strategies, tools, and techniques, initiating a cycle of continuous improvement and development for both the individual and the organization.

      Moreover, the participants' focus on grasping subtleties and utilizing appropriate resources underscores their innate yearning for mastery and competence in their respective roles. By aiming to learn and adapt to the distinct challenges of their work environments, they endeavor to excel in their tasks and responsibilities, which ultimately enhances their personal satisfaction and the organization's success. This quest for competence and mastery also exemplifies the pivotal role that internal motivators play in shaping how individuals tackle problem-solving and process improvement. By harnessing these potent motivators, organizations can cultivate a culture of ongoing learning and innovation, ultimately resulting in improved processes, better resource usage, and overall success.

Subtheme 1-3: Outcome Focused

      Outcome-focused refers to a participant or organization's approach, mindset, or strategy that emphasizes the importance of achieving specific goals or results. An outcome-focused perspective prioritizes the desired end results and aligns actions, resources, and decisions accordingly. This approach can often lead to more effective and efficient processes, encouraging constant evaluation and adaptation to optimize outcomes.

      As organizations face the need to modernize their outdated business processes, a critical initial question is which behaviors must be altered or tackled to attain the desired results from the change. Paul emphasized the importance of clearly defining the behavior modification's targeted outcome to ensure the change's success. Furthermore, Paul noted that after implementing a change, it is essential for the company to supply the team with actionable data. This enables the team to monitor the evolving behaviors, assess if adjustments are necessary, and fine-tune both outcomes and behaviors accordingly.

      While some organizations genuinely strive for improvement, others merely alter processes to meet specific scorecard metrics under the pretense of progress. Charles notes that, in his organization, everyone understands the company's true motives behind such actions. He provides an example:

We have a document that exists at work, which is our quality plan, it's reviewed annually. There are simple things in that quality plan that are valuable, such as spelling out acronyms. Got it, needed. At the same time, much of the machination of improving the quality plan is only to satisfy the business's attempts at increasing a score, and not genuinely interested in improving the process.

When Charles encounters such changes, he perceives the organization as merely checking off boxes for compliance, fostering resentment among employees. They recognize that the reviews and proposed modifications will likely be disregarded or rubber-stamped to maintain the appearance of adherence and progress rather than effecting genuine improvement.

      Identifying which behaviors need modification is crucial to managers' experiences with updates to organizational processes and strategic direction. However, the organization's change management process is equally vital. Study participants had either positive or negative reactions to their organization's change management processes. Amy responded positively and shared insights on how change management was executed at both the corporate and department levels.

      At the corporate level, the overarching goal of the change was discussed, while at the department level, employees were informed about the rationale and methods of the change. They were also briefed on the benefits it would bring to their work. Although Amy acknowledged that the change process was not without flaws, she believed it offered sufficient guidance to employees, enabling the implemented change to be effective and sustainable.

      In contrast, Craig reacted negatively to his organization's change management approach. He revealed that the organization did not adopt a comprehensive perspective on change management, only providing limited glimpses of the change to distinct employee groups. He explained that it was rare for anyone outside the executive and senior management teams to understand the proposed change fully.

      Due to the limited visibility, employees were uncertain about their roles and the reasons for the change. Additionally, they lacked insight into the changes requested by the departments they collaborated with closely. This led to alterations in already established processes, ultimately complicating work and reducing productivity.

      Effectively managing change is crucial to how study participants experience updates to organizational processes and strategic direction at work. Equally important is managing the resources required for implementing the changes. Participants recognize the organization's desire to improve processes and strive to be as efficient as possible while enacting the requested changes. However, the organization may not always have the necessary resources to maintain daily operations while implementing the changes.

      Jerry discussed the issue of resource allocation and change implementation. If he lacked confidence in the individuals assigned to implement the change, he would seek assistance from others who had the capacity to help or even assume responsibility for the change. For Jerry, this approach was necessary to meet the organization's deadlines for process change implementation.

      Paul adopted a slightly different strategy. When asked to implement a specific process change, he would first assess whether his internal resources could achieve the goal within the given deadline. If not, he would explore external options to acquire the needed skills and resources. Paul summarized his approach by stating, "And what do we need to get it done, is one of the things that I think could always be improved upon. And in trying to get the process from start to finish, versus having little band-aids to get through that."

      Adopting an outcome-focused approach is essential for organizations aiming to modernize outdated business processes and achieve meaningful improvements. This mindset prioritizes specific goals and results and ensures that actions, resources, and decisions are aligned effectively. The experiences of Paul, Charles, Amy, and Craig demonstrate the diverse ways in which organizations can implement outcome-focused strategies, as well as the challenges and successes that can arise during the process.

      The key to successfully implementing an outcome-focused approach lies in balancing genuine improvement and mere compliance. Organizations must be cautious not to focus solely on scorecard metrics, as highlighted by Charles' experience, and instead prioritize genuine improvements that foster employee buy-in and long-term success. As exemplified by Amy's experience, positive change management processes can contribute to more effective and sustainable implementation of change, ultimately benefiting the entire organization.

      Lastly, resource management plays a crucial role in ensuring the successful execution of an outcome-focused strategy. Both Jerry and Paul's experiences emphasize the importance of evaluating available resources and seeking external assistance when necessary. Organizations can achieve meaningful progress and sustainable success in their strategic direction and processes by adopting an outcome-focused approach that prioritizes genuine improvement, effective change management, and proper resource allocation.

Theme 2: Ubiquitous Frustration

      Ubiquitous frustration describes how the participants endure pervasive displeasure, irritation, and unhappiness frequently encountered in their professional tasks and interpersonal connections at the workplace. This phenomenon reflects a sense of dissatisfaction that seems to touch many aspects of their work life, leading to a feeling of mal-contentment and aggravation. This sense of displeasure stems from various factors that can negatively impact their well-being and job performance. Participants expressed how their frustrations bled into other areas of the organization and were not solely centered on the participant's world. Participants relayed how inter and intrateam dynamics, customer relationships, and friction with upper management were all adversely affected due to the frustrations experienced within the organization. 

      The experience of ubiquitous frustration includes external factors outside the participant's control that are ever-present and inhibit the participants from working optimally and efficiently. These outside factors, such as a false fire drill initiated by upper management, waste precious time and energy the participants do not have to give. Each frustrating moment builds on similar moments until the participant reaches a point where they either resign themselves to the situation just as it is or look to take action by making a career change.

      This theme includes the codes (a) frustration; (b) festering resentment towards processes; (c) annoyance can lead to burnout; (d) client disappointments; (e) teammates burning out because of the wasted energy. Ubiquitous frustration includes two subthemes: positive attitude and self-preservation. Positive attitude is the mindset and perspective of the participant that is optimistic and hopeful that a solution-oriented approach toward their frustration will result in a better situational outcome. The other subtheme, self-preservation, describes the actions taken by participants to protect their physical, emotional, and mental well-being in the face of constant and pervasive irritation.  

Subtheme 2-1: Positive Attitude 

      Positive attitude describes a participant's capacity to maintain optimism and hope, even when confronted with persistent challenges. Participants often highlighted the importance of self-motivation in fostering this positive mindset, as their workplaces frequently failed to offer a supportive environment. As a result, they often had to rely on their inner drive to navigate their professional experiences. By cultivating a positive attitude, the participants could better cope with adversity as they continued to strive for success.

      Many participants expressed taking satisfaction in a job well done. This satisfaction came from the participants' pride in their work and the solutions they provided to the organization. The participants know that feeling pride in their work and company is very positive and can be leveraged for greater success for the individual and the company. When talking about how process limitations affect how he takes pride in his work, Kyle stated, "when we know there's a gap, it hinders our ability to feel pride in what we do in the company and where we're going."

So that client could have signed on for additional things, but after having a meeting with me and my head of and another department head for something else, made it clear that after that series, which would be fulfilling the contractual obligation, they would not be continuing on with us because of their frustration.

And so that got implemented in parts of the system. I guess they were trying to pile it up, but not as a whole. And where I found the biggest frustration with that was that they didn't apply it to kids in out of home care. My issue with that, so to speak, was if you're allowing a guardian to sign a digital consent for a child, what difference does it make if the child is in the care of that guardian, or in the care of a caregiver? And nobody really had an answer for that. So, in essence, that technology was both a blessing and a curse. Wait a minute, how are you differentiating between guardians? Guardian is guardian, right? How come we can use it with this population, but not this population?

So, it's one of those things where you try to remain positive, try to keep everybody else positive. But there's usually, I'm not going to say always, usually some drama involved that as a leader, you got to figure out a way to either tell them, hey, guys, lose the negative attitude, we're all being held to the same goal, we've got to figure out a way to get around it, we may not like it.

      A positive attitude is crucial in overcoming the pervasive frustration that participants experienced in the workplace. By maintaining optimism and hope, even in the face of persistent challenges, they were better able to cope with adversity and strive for success. Self-motivation played a significant role in fostering a positive mindset, as participants often found their work environment to be less than supportive. Consequently, they had to rely on their inner drive to navigate their professional experiences and, ultimately, find satisfaction in a job well done.

      The sense of pride and fulfillment derived from a job well done was crucial for the participant's ability to remain positive. This satisfaction stemmed from their dedication to their work and the solutions they provided to their organizations. Participants understood that taking pride in their work and company could lead to greater success for both themselves and their organizations. For example, Kyle highlighted the impact of process limitations on his ability to take pride in his work, stating that the knowledge of existing gaps hindered his sense of accomplishment within the company.

      However, maintaining a positive attitude was often challenging due to various factors, such as inefficient procedures, poor leadership, and insufficient collaboration within the organization. These obstacles led to mounting frustration among participants as they struggled to perform their duties effectively. Moreover, the lack of adequate processes made it difficult to meet client expectations, further exacerbating participants' frustrations. Engaging in challenging discussions with clients, as experienced by Roger and Sheila, further emphasized the difficulties faced by participants in their quest to remain positive.

      Despite these challenges, many participants recognized the importance of addressing their workplace frustrations to maintain a positive outlook. By acknowledging that their careers only constituted a small part of their lives, they resolved not to let negative work experiences impact their personal lives. Craig's perspective on maintaining a balanced lifestyle, and Paul's leadership approach to encouraging positivity among his team, exemplified participants' commitment to resilience and their determination to overcome the ubiquitous frustration they faced in their professional lives.

Subtheme 2-2: Self Preservation 

      Self-preservation refers to the measures participants take to safeguard their physical, emotional, and mental well-being in the face of ongoing and widespread frustration encountered in their professional tasks and interpersonal connections at the workplace. This concept is crucial for maintaining personal health and overall well-being when faced with persistent displeasure, dissatisfaction, and aggravation that permeates various aspects of work life.

      While in self-preservation mode, participants recognized the importance of safeguarding their mental well-being and shielding themselves from the consequences of organizational decisions. They emphasized the need to be astute and comprehend the intricacies of workplace politics. By gaining insight into the political dynamics within the organization, participants could strategically navigate complex situations and leverage those situations to their advantage, thereby enabling them to endure challenging circumstances. Craig explained how he used self-protection in his working life:

So better take it on the good way to make your life better. Think about yourself. And it's every career, whether it's inside the company or outside the company, I always tell my employees, be selfish, it is your career, you decide what you want to do. And that drives also your attitude, how you want to do.

I would say it leads to disengagement with certain activities, certain job responsibilities. I'll use an example, this did not happen, but this might be easier to explain. So, let's say there're process issues with our onboarding, whether it's communication or getting the new employees on board, I've recruited onboard, and they're starting their job. If we have an issue there that we cannot resolve, I feel that I disengage from tasks that are associated with that process.

      Ubiquitous frustration is a pervasive feeling arising from the various challenges and inefficiencies employees face at the workplace. It encompasses all aspects of work life, from inefficient processes and lack of support to poor leadership and lack of growth opportunities. The concept of self-preservation becomes vital in the face of such ongoing and widespread frustration, as it enables individuals to maintain their physical, emotional, and mental well-being.

      Recognizing the need for self-preservation, participants adopted various strategies to protect themselves from the harmful effects of ubiquitous frustration. These strategies ranged from understanding workplace politics and using it to their advantage, disengaging from tasks that contributed to frustration, or seeking new opportunities outside their current organization. Through these measures, employees could better cope with the challenges and stressors that arose in the workplace and maintain their overall well-being.

      Indoctrination, as a means of self-preservation, also managed the impact of ubiquitous frustration on new employees. Participants created a more resilient and adaptable workforce by setting realistic expectations and preparing new hires for the challenges they were likely to face. This approach helped reduce employee turnover and fostered a work environment where individuals were better equipped to deal with frustration and challenges.

      Self-preservation played a crucial role in helping employees safeguard their well-being amidst the ubiquitous frustration experienced in the workplace. By adopting various strategies and approaches, individuals could successfully navigate the challenges they face in their professional lives, enabling them to maintain their health and overall well-being. This, in turn, contributed to a more stable and supportive work environment where employees could grow and thrive despite their jobs' inherent difficulties and frustrations.

Theme 3: Facilitated Collaboration

      Facilitated collaboration refers to the process in which participants engage in cooperative efforts, either among members of the same team or across various groups within an organization. The aim is to reach a shared objective or finish a project without requiring a designated authority figure or facilitator to direct the conversation or decision-making process. In this approach, participants draw upon their combined skills, expertise, and knowledge to communicate effectively, share ideas, and make decisions while promoting a sense of collective responsibility and autonomy.

      This theme includes the codes (a) know your audience; (b) good working relationships with and among teams; (c) working in a collaborative environment; (d) good relationships smooth out process inefficiencies; (e) fear of damaged relationships. Facilitated collaboration includes two subthemes: nurturing understanding and relational influence. Nurturing understanding refers to fostering a supportive and empathetic environment where participants, either among their team or across various groups within an organization, work cooperatively to achieve shared objectives to complete projects.  The other subtheme, relational influence, describes interpersonal connections and dynamics' impact on the collaborative process as participants work cooperatively to achieve common goals or complete projects. 

Subtheme 3-1: Nurturing Understanding  

      Nurturing understanding refers to the practice of promoting a supportive atmosphere among both intra and inter-team members. Participants frequently exhibited a collaborative mindset and were interested in engaging with their colleagues. They also recognized the importance of effective communication within their teams. Participants utilized the organization's available resources and tools to address their communication and collaboration needs. 

      Numerous participants shared their experiences of maintaining positive working relationships with their teammates and colleagues from various departments. Establishing and sustaining these relationships often demanded effort and persistence, as participants recognized that poor interpersonal connections could lead to more significant problems within the organization and negatively impact productivity. As a result, participants endeavored to keep relationships strong and fruitful.

      Participants derived satisfaction from building and nurturing relationships and were unafraid to challenge others to progress on tasks and projects. While doing so, they were careful not to jeopardize these relationships. Instead, they skillfully leveraged their connections to achieve desired outcomes, pushing the boundaries when necessary to accomplish the task at hand while maintaining a positive rapport with their colleagues. Jerry discussed the importance of relationships for ensuring work is carried out effectively, stating:

If you have others in the past that may have encountered those inefficiencies and thrown their hands up and said, this just isn't going to work, and they just kind of disconnect, well, then that just shifts the responsibility of someone else on the team to help get it done. Because the work doesn't go away if an individual disconnects from the process.

      Jerry commented on this dynamic, stating that "individuals in the organization who consistently deliver beyond their commitments are rewarded with even more tasks and activities, simply because the business knows they will get it done." Although he acknowledged that such behavior could cause issues, he still heavily relied on these high-performing colleagues to advance his projects. This overdependence on a select few team members highlights the importance of understanding the potential consequences of uneven workload distribution within the teams.

      Participants recognized the importance of collaboration and communication in fostering understanding within the organization. They aimed to break down any barriers that might prevent effective communication and foster an environment of openness and dialog. By doing so, participants would communicate freely with their colleagues and better understand what was happening within the teams.

      Moreover, the participants emphasized the significance of proper communication in disseminating and receiving information. They believed that clear and effective communication was vital for ensuring that everyone was on the same page and that tasks were carried out efficiently. By prioritizing effective communication, participants wanted to avoid misunderstandings and promote a sense of collective responsibility and accountability for the team's success. When discussing the need for communication, Craig emphasized that communication was a two-way street and that having a flow of information between all team members was essential. He explained how effective communication was paramount to achieving success and reaching common goals. By prioritizing communication and keeping an open dialogue, organizations could ensure that everyone was on the same page and that tasks were carried out efficiently. When discussing how vital communication is when a gap in a process was identified, Kyle stated: "we spend so much time over-communicating when there's a gap in a process."

      Effective organizational communication requires consistency in messaging, which participants emphasized. While communication was a crucial topic of discussion, participants recognized that without consistency in messaging, there is a risk of misunderstandings and misinterpretations that could hinder productivity and cause delays in task completion.

      To break down barriers and foster an environment of openness and dialog, it is essential to ensure that everyone receives the same information. Consistency in messaging promotes a sense of collective responsibility and accountability for the team's success, allowing participants to work together towards common goals and carry out tasks efficiently.

      The participants emphasized the importance of effective communication to prevent misinterpretations and foster a common understanding of the organization's goals. This is particularly crucial when addressing procedural deficiencies, as it requires all stakeholders to be informed about the problem and the necessary corrective actions. Consistent messaging should be maintained within and between teams and across the various levels of the organization. According to Paul, "it's essential to have a top-down approach to ensure consistent messaging."

      Understanding is essential for promoting collaboration, effective communication, and positive relationships among intra and inter-team members. Participants in this context recognized that maintaining positive working relationships demanded effort and persistence, as poor interpersonal connections would lead to significant problems within the organization and negatively impact productivity. They relied on proactive and efficient team members who consistently delivered results beyond their commitments and skillfully leveraged their connections to achieve desired outcomes, pushing the boundaries when necessary to accomplish the task at hand while maintaining a positive rapport with their colleagues.

      Participants also emphasized the significance of proper communication in disseminating and receiving information. Effective communication was vital for ensuring that everyone was on the same page and that tasks were carried out efficiently. They recognized that without consistency in messaging, there was a risk of misunderstandings and misinterpretations that would hinder productivity and cause delays in task completion. It was essential to ensure everyone received the same information to break down barriers and foster an environment of openness and dialog. Consistency in messaging promoted a sense of collective responsibility and accountability for the team's success; this allowed participants to work together towards common goals and carry out tasks efficiently.

      In summary, fostering understanding within an organization is closely linked to promoting facilitated collaboration, effective communication, and positive relationships among team members. These elements are crucial for achieving success and reaching common goals within the organization. The participants' experiences in this context emphasize the significance of leveraging relationships, prioritizing effective communication, and maintaining consistency in messaging as essential strategies for promoting understanding and achieving organizational objectives.

Subtheme 3-2: Relational Influence 

      Relational influence refers to the effect an individual can exert on the perspectives, convictions, and actions of others in the context of personal or professional connections. This idea plays a crucial role in analyzing interaction dynamics among participants before and after implementing process enhancement decisions within an organization. By understanding the intricacies of relational influence, the participants demonstrated how individuals' impact on each other's viewpoints and behaviors shapes the overall decision-making process, ultimately affecting the success and effectiveness of the company's improvements.

      An element of relational influence that the participants exhibited involved assessing the extent of their organizational control concerning decisions about process modifications. In reviewing these decisions, they believed there might be some room for them to adjust or alter the proposed changes. The degree of flexibility was contingent on the individual's influence in the context of the specific decision. Furthermore, the participants maintained a practical approach to evaluating their control over various processes. They recognized that dwelling on matters well beyond their influence would be unproductive and thus avoided such discussions. 

      During discussions about potential adjustments to changes, Amy clarified that while governmental mandates could not be altered, more minor non-governmental modifications could be adapted and fine-tuned. She elaborated by stating:

For the small things, but for the day-to-day functional things that are within our control. For example, the state mandates what has to be included in the record, but it does not mandate how you do it. So, from that perspective, they've had a lot of ability to change and do things because they've had to.

      Understanding who is part of the circle of influence is crucial; however, effectively communicating with the appropriate individuals within that circle at the right moment can be equally vital. The participants expressed a desire for collaboration and inclusiveness in their discussions but frequently encountered situations where the relevant people were unavailable. This unavailability resulted in gaps and delays in the processes they aimed to implement. Nathan shared his experience, stating, "so, we just move those expectations that were more about micromanagement for me related, just to give some information at a certain level of the certain base." 

      By participating in these exchanges, the participants become familiar with the company's unwritten processes and leverage this knowledge to accomplish their objectives. Jerry described organizational cohesion as follows: 

Such that I would say that that cohesiveness of the organization can help, whether it helps in improving the efficiency or not, or whether it just helps to know that the rest of the team is equally invested despite the inefficiencies to get eventually to where we need to go.

This perspective underscores the importance of unity within an organization in driving progress and overcoming challenges.

      Participants understood their influence and control over decisions related to process modifications. By maintaining a practical approach to evaluating their control and strategically employing their connections, they navigated complex situations and adjusted to changes when possible. Effective communication, collaboration, and inclusiveness were vital in ensuring the participants could work within their organization and implement necessary improvements.

      Organizational cohesion played a crucial role in driving progress and overcoming challenges. Participants who had a long tenure at a company, having both requested and performed favors for others, developed a sense of unity within the organization. By leveraging their knowledge of unwritten processes, they were better equipped to achieve their objectives and contribute to the organization's overall success.

      In summary, facilitated collaboration is significantly influenced by individuals' relational influence, effective communication, and organizational cohesion. By understanding their sphere of influence, participants worked with their team more effectively, made informed decisions, and adapted to changes.  This understanding was pivotal in enhancing teamwork and setting the organization up for success.

Theme 4: Perfunctory Acquiescence

Subtheme 4-1: Unquestioning Compliance  

      Unquestioning compliance refers to the participants opting to adhere to instructions or expectations to sidestep conflict or satisfy perceived obligations. This passive approach avoids active participation in the decision-making process or the exploration of alternative solutions. When this occurs, participants often lack curiosity, creativity, or personal investment in the proposed outcome. 

      Some participants expressed concerns about the ongoing fatigue within their organization caused by continuous changes. They felt that the lack of stability due to these constant shifts negatively impacts the company and its employees. This exhaustion led to employees simply adopting new changes without questioning their rationale. Paul elaborated that some aspects of this situation were controllable while others were not. Team members' willingness to change varied; some embraced it, and others were compelled to do so. He emphasized that the perpetual state of change exacerbated the issue, as valuable experience and internal knowledge were not being harnessed to improve known process issues.

      Some participants had discussed how observing changes taking place at competitors made them feel envious. They had observed that the changes implemented by competitors were making the competitor better and more efficient in the marketplace. One participant had longed to see improvements within their own company, but because they had been with the company for so long, they did not have faith that the company would be able to change the way it operated. Charles explained how he desired to make changes quickly to keep up with the competition. He was not concerned if the proposed change addressed all the process issues in the company; he just wanted to change so the company could do something to keep up with the competition.

      Changes to systems and processes often necessitated participants to just blindly accept the changes, even without adequate communication or training. Paul mentioned that part of the struggle stemmed from the rapid pace of technological change, which made it difficult for tools and pieces of training to be updated quickly. Craig had discussed his approach to these situations, saying, "I like to disturb in a nice way, sometimes asking the stupid question, or sometimes asking the hard question. And it's like that. Why is it happening?" However, in the end, due to the organization's need to implement the process change, he had no choice but to comply.

      Unquestioning compliance refers to the participants' tendency to adhere to instructions or expectations to avoid conflict or fulfill perceived obligations. This passive approach prevents active participation in the decision-making process or the exploration of alternative solutions. As a result, participants often lacked curiosity, creativity, or personal investment in the proposed outcome. 

Subtheme 4-2: Bare Minimums 

      Bare minimums refers to a participant fulfilling their responsibilities or meeting expectations with the least amount of effort, thought, or enthusiasm. This behavior was often a result of the participant not agreeing with the proposed process change, and instead of pushing back or resisting the change, they would comply with the spirit of the change rather than the letter of the change.

Sometimes you don't even want to use it, and you want to try to go a different route and ignore the process and ignore the ways that you're supposed to be doing it, so that you can just get it done easily. Like go to the top approval and say, hey, I need to get this done. Can I just work off it? You try to use workaround sometimes, especially in those moments that time is of essence, and you need to do something, and the technology breaks. You just try to do the workaround and say, hey, I'm just going to put it on my credit card and deal with the ramifications later.

Findings Across Demographics

      This section examines the data's variations across diverse demographic categories, including gender, tenure at the company, size of the company, and position within the organization. The data is displayed as a percentage of coded segments compared to the total number of coded segments for each distinct group. This analysis aims to identify possible differences or trends within these demographic groups, enabling a deeper understanding of the underlying patterns in the data.

Gender

      The data presented in Table 4 examines gender differences in various thematic areas based on the percentage distribution of codes among male (7) and female (3) in the study. In intrinsic motivation, males as a total exhibited higher percentages in all subthemes, with a total of 34.89% compared to female's 18.58%. When examined on a per individual basis, the female population were more likely to be intrinsically motivated, empowered, and focused on addressing relevant problems with the right outcomes (6.19% per female participant versus 4.98% per male participant). Regarding ubiquitous frustration, males had a higher total percentage of 13.41% compared to female's 7.92%. When examined on a per individual basis, the female population indicated more frustration and self-preservation, while on a per individual basis, males showed a lower positive attitude towards the subject matter (2.64% per female participant versus 1.92% per male participant).

      In the theme of facilitated collaboration, males demonstrated a higher total percentage (12.44%) than females (2.91%), implying that males were more involved in collaborative activities and exhibited a higher level of nurturing understanding and relational influence. This trend held true when examining facilitated collaboration on a per individual basis as well (0.97% per female participant versus 1.78% per male participant). In the theme of perfunctory acquiescence, males had a higher total percentage (5.98%) than females (3.88%). When examined on a per individual basis, the female population were more likely to exhibit perfunctory acquiescence (1.29% per female participant versus 0.85% per male participant).

      Overall, the total percentages for males and females were 66.72% and 33.28%, respectively, reflecting the gender differences in the distribution of codes across various themes and subthemes and aligning closely with the 70.00% male and 30.00% female composition of the study participants. But when these results are examined on a per individual basis, each individual female makes up 11.09% of all coded segments for this topic while each male only makes up 9.53% of all coded segments for this topic. 

Table 4 - Gender Differences in Theme and Subtheme Responses

 

 

 

 

Theme

Subtheme

Men (7)

Women (3)

Intrinsic Motivation Codes

 

8.08%

3.88%

 

Personal Empowerment Codes

11.79%

7.75%

 

Relevant Problems Codes

11.47%

6.30%

 

Outcome Focus Codes

3.55%

0.65%

Intrinsic Motivation Total

 

34.89%

18.58%

Intrinsic Motivation Per Participant Breakdown

 

4.98%

6.19%

 

 

 

 

Ubiquitous Frustration Codes

 

5.17%

4.36%

 

Positive Attitude Codes

4.04%

0.32%

 

Self-Preservation Codes

4.20%

3.23%

Ubiquitous Frustration Total

 

13.41%

7.92%

Ubiquitous Frustration Per Participant Breakdown

 

1.92%

2.64%

 

 

 

 

Facilitated Collaboration Codes

 

3.72%

0.81%

 

Nurturing Understanding Codes

5.98%

1.29%

 

Relational Influence Codes

2.75%

0.81%

Facilitated Collaboration Total

 

12.44%

2.91%

Facilitated Collaboration Per Participant Breakdown

 

1.78%

0.97%

 

 

 

 

Perfunctory Acquiescence Codes

 

3.88%

0.48%

 

Unquestioning Compliance Codes

1.62%

2.10%

 

Bare Minimums Codes

0.48%

1.29%

Perfunctory Acquiescence Total

 

5.98%

3.88%

Perfunctory Acquiescence Per Participant Breakdown

 

0.85%

1.29%

 

 

 

 

Total

 

66.72%

33.28%

 

 

9.53%

11.09%

 

Company Tenure

      The data presented in Table 5 examines tenure differences in various thematic areas based on the percentage distribution of codes among participants employed between 5 and 10 years with their company (6), participants employed between 11 and 15 years with their company (1) and participants employed between 16 and 20 years with their company (3). In intrinsic motivation, participants that were employed between 5 and 10 years with their company exhibited higher percentages in all subthemes, with a total of 38.83% compared to participants employed with their company between 11 and 15 years 2.75% and participants employed with their company between 16 and 20 years 13.89%. This suggests that participants who had been with their company for 5 to 10 years were more likely to be intrinsically motivated, empowered, focused on addressing relevant problems and outcomes. Regarding ubiquitous frustration, participants who had been with their company for 5 to 10 years had a higher total percentage of 15.51% compared to participants employed with their company between 11 and 15 years 0.48% and participants employed with their company between 16 and 20 years 5.33% indicating more frustration and self-preservation among participants who had been with their company for 5 to 10 years. The other tenure categories showed a less positive attitude toward the subject matter.

      In the theme of facilitated collaboration, participants who had been with their company for 5 to 10 years demonstrated a significantly higher total percentage (8.89%) than participants employed with their company between 11 and 15 (0.48%) and participants employed with their company between 16 and 20 years (5.98%). This implies that participants who had been with their company for 5 to 10 years were more involved in collaborative activities and exhibited a higher level of nurturing understanding and relational influence. In the theme of perfunctory acquiescence, participants who had been with their company for 5 to 10 years had a higher total percentage (6.79%) than participants employed with their company between 11 and 15 (0.48%) and participants employed with their company between 16 and 20 years (2.58%). This suggests that participants who had been with their company for 5 to 10 years were more likely to exhibit perfunctory acquiescence.

      Overall, the total percentages for participants who had been with their company for 5 to 10 years, participants employed with their company between 11 and 15, and participants employed with their company between 16 and 20 years were 68.01% and 4.20%, and 27.29%, respectively, reflecting the tenure differences in the distribution of codes across various themes and subthemes and not aligning closely with the 60.00% 4.20% and 27.79% participant tenure composition of the study participants. 

Table 5 - Tenure Differences in Theme and Subtheme Responses

 

 

 

 

 

Theme

Subtheme

5-10 Years At Company (6) 

11-15 Years At Company (1) 

16-20 Years At Company (3)

Intrinsic Motivation Codes

 

7.59%

0.65%

3.72%

 

Personal Empowerment Codes

14.05%

0.81%

4.68%

 

Relevant Problems Codes

12.12%

0.97%

4.68%

 

Outcome Focus Codes

3.07%

0.32%

0.81%

Intrinsic Motivation Total

 

36.83%

2.75%

13.89%

 

 

 

 

 

Ubiquitous Frustration Codes

 

7.11%

0.00%

2.42%

 

Positive Attitude Codes

3.07%

0.00%

1.29%

 

Self-Preservation Codes

5.33%

0.48%

1.62%

Ubiquitous Frustration Total

 

15.51%

0.48%

5.33%

 

 

 

 

 

Facilitated Collaboration Codes

 

2.42%

0.16%

1.94%

 

Nurturing Understanding Codes

4.36%

0.00%

2.91%

 

Relational Influence Codes

2.10%

0.32%

1.13%

Facilitated Collaboration Total

 

8.89%

0.48%

5.98%

 

 

 

 

 

Perfunctory Acquiescence Codes

 

2.91%

0.32%

1.13%

 

Unquestioning Compliance

2.58%

0.00%

1.13%

 

Bare Codes Minimums Codes

1.29%

0.16%

0.32%

Perfunctory Acquiescence Total

 

6.79%

0.48%

2.58%

 

 

 

 

 

Total

 

68.01%

4.20%

27.79%

 

Company Age

      The data presented in Table 6 examines company age differences in various thematic areas based on the percentage distribution of codes among participants working for companies that are between 3-10 years old (1) and those working for companies that are 10 or more years old (9). In intrinsic motivation, participants working for companies that are between 3-10 years old exhibited lower percentages in all subthemes, with a total of 3.39% compared to participants working for companies 10 or more years old, 50.08%. This suggests that participants working for companies that are 10 or more years old were more likely to be intrinsically motivated, empowered, and focused on addressing relevant problems. Regarding ubiquitous frustration, participants working for companies that are 3 to 10 years old had a lower total percentage of 2.10% compared to participants working for companies that are 10 or more years old 19.22%, indicating more frustration and self-preservation among participants working for companies that are 10 or more years old, while participants working for companies that are 3 to 10 years old showed a lower positive attitude towards the subject matter.

      In the theme of facilitated collaboration, participants working for companies that are 3 to 10 years old demonstrated a significantly lower total percentage (0.48%) than participants working for companies that are 10 or more years old (14.86%), implying that participants working for companies that are 10 or more years old were more involved in collaborative activities and exhibited a higher level of nurturing understanding and relational influence. In the theme of perfunctory acquiescence, participants working for companies that are 10 or more years old had a higher total percentage (9.85%) than participants working for companies that are 3 to 10 years old (0.00%), suggesting that participants working for companies that are 10 or more years old were more likely to exhibit perfunctory acquiescence.

      Overall, the total percentages for participants working for companies that are 3 to 10 years old and participants working for companies that are 10 or more years old were 5.98% and 94.02%, respectively, reflecting the age of the company differences in the distribution of codes across various themes and subthemes and not aligning closely with the 10.00% participants working for companies that are 3 to 10 years old and 90.00% participants working for companies that are 10 or more years old composition of the study participants. 

Table 6 - Age of Company Differences in Theme and Subtheme Responses

 

 

 

 

Theme

Subtheme

3-10 Years Old (1)

10 or More Years Old (9)

Intrinsic Motivation Codes

 

0.97%

10.99%

 

Personal Empowerment Codes

1.45%

18.09%

 

Relevant Problems Codes

0.65%

17.12%

 

Outcome Focus Codes

0.32%

3.88%

Intrinsic Motivation Total

 

3.39%

50.08%

 

 

 

 

Ubiquitous Frustration Codes

 

1.45%

8.08%

 

Positive Attitude Codes

0.32%

4.04%

 

Self-Preservation Codes

0.32%

7.11%

Ubiquitous Frustration Total

 

2.10%

19.22%

 

 

 

 

Facilitated Collaboration Codes

 

0.16%

4.36%

 

Nurturing Understanding Codes

0.16%

7.11%

 

Relational Influence Codes

0.16%

3.39%

Facilitated Collaboration Total

 

0.48%

14.86%

 

 

 

 

Perfunctory Acquiescence Codes

 

0.00%

4.36%

 

Unquestioning Compliance Codes

0.00%

3.72%

 

Bare Minimums Codes

0.00%

1.78%

Perfunctory Acquiescence Total

 

0.00%

9.85%

 

 

 

 

Total

 

5.98%

94.02%

 

Company Size

      The data presented in Table 7 examines company age differences in various thematic areas based on the percentage distribution of codes among participants working for companies that are between 25 to 100 employees (1) and those working for companies with more than 100 employees (9). In intrinsic motivation, participants working for companies that are between 25 to 100 employees exhibited lower percentages in all subthemes, with a total of 3.39%, compared to participants working for companies with more than 100 employees, 50.08%. This suggests that participants working for companies with over 100 employees were more likely to be intrinsically motivated, empowered, and focused on addressing relevant problems. Regarding ubiquitous frustration, participants working for companies that have between 25 and 100 employees had a lower total percentage of 2.10% compared to participants working for companies with more than 100 employees 19.22%, indicating more frustration and self-preservation among participants working for companies that had more than 100 employees, while participants working for companies with 25 to 100 employees showed a lower positive attitude towards the subject matter.

      In the theme of facilitated collaboration, participants working for companies that have 25 to 100 employees demonstrated a significantly lower total percentage (0.48%) than participants working for companies with more than 100 employees (14.86%), implying that participants working for companies with more than 100 employees were more involved in collaborative activities and exhibited a higher level of nurturing understanding and relational influence. In the theme of perfunctory acquiescence, participants working for companies with more than 100 employees had a higher total percentage (9.85%) than companies with 25 to 100 employees (0.00%), suggesting that participants working for companies that have greater than 100 employees were more likely to exhibit perfunctory acquiescence.

      Overall, the total percentages for participants working for companies that have 25 to 100 employees and participants working for companies that have more than 100 employees were 5.98% and 94.02%, respectively, reflecting the company employee count differences in the distribution of codes across various themes and subthemes and not aligning closely with the 10.00% participants working for companies that have between 25 and 100 employees and 90.00% participants working for companies that have more than 100 employees composition of the study participants. 

Table 7 - Size of Company Differences in Theme and Subtheme Responses

 

 

 

 

Theme

Subtheme

25 - 100 Employees (1)

More Than 100 Employees (9)

Intrinsic Motivation Codes

 

0.97%

10.99%

 

Personal Empowerment Codes

1.45%

18.09%

 

Relevant Problems Codes

0.65%

17.12%

 

Outcome Focus Codes

0.32%

3.88%

Intrinsic Motivation Total

 

3.39%

50.08%

 

 

 

 

Ubiquitous Frustration Codes

 

1.45%

8.08%

 

Positive Attitude Codes

0.32%

4.04%

 

Self-Preservation Codes

0.32%

7.11%

Ubiquitous Frustration Total

 

2.10%

19.22%

 

 

 

 

Facilitated Collaboration Codes

 

0.16%

4.36%

 

Nurturing Understanding Codes

0.16%

7.11%

 

Relational Influence Codes

0.16%

3.39%

Facilitated Collaboration Total

 

0.48%

14.86%

 

 

 

 

Perfunctory Acquiescence Codes

 

0.00%

4.36%

 

Unquestioning Compliance Codes

0.00%

3.72%

 

Bare Minimums Codes

0.00%

1.78%

Perfunctory Acquiescence Total

 

0.00%

9.85%

 

 

 

 

Total

 

5.98%

94.02%

 

Participant Level Within The Organization

      The data presented in Table 8 examines participant level within the organization differences in various thematic areas based on the percentage distribution of codes among participants who are frontline managers (4), managers (4), and executives (2). In intrinsic motivation, participants that were managers exhibited higher percentages in all subthemes, with a total of 25.20% compared to participants who were frontline managers 21.32% and participants who were executives 6.95%. This suggests that participants who were managers were more likely to be intrinsically motivated, empowered, and focused on addressing relevant problems. Regarding ubiquitous frustration, frontline managers had a higher total percentage of 8.40% compared to managers, 5.65%, and executives, 7.27% indicating more frustration and self-preservation among participants who were frontline managers. 

      In the theme of facilitated collaboration, managers demonstrated a significantly higher total percentage (9.85%) than frontline managers (3.39%) and executives (2.10%). This implies that managers were more involved in collaborative activities and exhibited a higher level of nurturing understanding and relational influence. Conversely, in perfunctory acquiescence, executives had a lower total percentage (0.48%) than managers (5.01%) and frontline employees (4.36%). This suggests that managers were more likely to exhibit perfunctory acquiescence.

      Overall, the total percentages for frontline employees, managers, and executives were 37.48%, 45.72%, and 16.80%, respectively, reflecting the difference in level within the company in the distribution of codes across various themes and subthemes and not aligning closely with the 40.00% frontline, 40.00% manager, and 20.00% executive participant organizational level composition of the study participants. 

Table 8 - Participant Level Within The Organization Differences in Theme and Subtheme Responses

 

 

 

 

 

Theme

Subtheme

Frontline Manager (4)

Manager (4)

Executive (2)

Intrinsic Motivation Codes

 

4.52%

5.01%

2.42%

 

Personal Empowerment Codes

8.56%

9.69%

1.29%

 

Relevant Problems Codes

7.27%

7.59%

2.91%

 

Outcome Focus Codes

0.97%

2.91%

0.32%

Intrinsic Motivation Total

 

21.32%

25.20%

6.95%

 

 

 

 

 

Ubiquitous Frustration Codes

 

4.36%

1.78%

3.39%

 

Positive Attitude Codes

0.32%

1.94%

2.10%

 

Self-Preservation Codes

3.72%

1.94%

1.78%

Ubiquitous Frustration Total

 

8.40%

5.65%

7.27%

 

 

 

 

 

Facilitated Collaboration Codes

 

0.97%

3.07%

0.48%

 

Nurturing Understanding Codes

1.29%

4.85%

1.13%

 

Relational Influence Codes

1.13%

1.94%

0.48%

Facilitated Collaboration Total

 

3.39%

9.85%

2.10%

 

 

 

 

 

Perfunctory Acquiescence Codes

 

0.81%

3.07%

0.48%

 

Unquestioning Compliance Codes

2.10%

1.62%

0.00%

 

Bare Minimums Codes

1.45%

0.32%

0.00%

Perfunctory Acquiescence Total

 

4.36%

5.01%

0.48%

 

 

 

 

 

Total

 

37.48%

45.72%

16.80%

 

Summary

      An analysis of data from ten participants uncovered four significant themes and nine subthemes. The first theme, intrinsic motivation, is a driving factor in individuals' desire to improve their work environment and performance. External barriers often challenge it, but participants with a strong internal drive find ways to overcome these obstacles. This theme includes three subthemes: personal empowerment, relevant problems, and outcome focused. Personal empowerment refers to an individual's desire to take independent action to change organizational processes. Relevant problems address the need for proposed process changes to target the correct issue. Outcome focused refers to the approach, mindset, or strategy adopted by a participant that emphasizes the importance of achieving specific goals or results.

      The second theme, ubiquitous frustration, is characterized by pervasive displeasure and irritation in the participants' professional tasks and relationships. This frustration can impact various aspects of work life and lead to burnout. Two subthemes emerge from this theme: positive attitude and self-preservation. A positive attitude emphasizes the importance of optimism and hope, while self-preservation highlights the measures taken to protect one's well-being in the face of ongoing frustration.

      The third theme, facilitated collaboration, is the process in which participants cooperate to achieve shared objectives without a designated authority figure. This theme includes two subthemes: nurturing understanding and relational influence. Nurturing understanding promotes a supportive atmosphere, while relational influence refers to the impact of interpersonal connections on the collaborative process.

      The fourth theme, perfunctory acquiescence, describes participants' minimal effort or enthusiasm in accepting or complying with a request, decision, or rule. This theme includes the subthemes of unquestioning compliance and bare minimums. Unquestioning compliance refers to blind adherence without critical evaluation, while bare minimums describe the minimal effort to accept or comply with a change.

      

 

 

 

Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations

      The primary aim of this study was to gain insight into the firsthand encounters of managers as they navigate the complexities of entropy within business systems and processes. In this chapter, I assume the role of the researcher and establish a connection between the research findings and the initial research questions. Furthermore, I outline the interpretations, offer recommendations for future studies, explore the implications, and address the strengths and limitations of this research endeavor. The interpretations are examined through the lenses of the conceptual framework and the literature review presented in Chapter 2. Additionally, this chapter delves into a discussion of the practical implications of these findings, specifically concerning the manifestation of entropy in business systems. 

Interpretation of Findings

      This research aimed to fill the knowledge gap regarding managers' lived experiences in the workplace as they encounter entropy within business systems. The objective was to gain insight into their experiences with business systems' entropy. Through interviews with managers, four key themes were identified.

      The study's findings revealed four primary themes that addressed the research question and contributed to understanding managers' workplace experiences, specifically in this study's context. This section will establish connections between the research questions, the findings, the existing literature covered in the literature review (refer to Chapter 2), and the themes examined within the context of the conceptual framework's components.

      In the subsequent sections, we will delineate the associations between the research questions, the relevant literature, and the conceptual framework to interpret the findings effectively. The conceptual framework encompasses three primary elements: organizational balance, the parallels between entropy in business systems and entropy in computer systems, and change management strategies. These components provide a foundation for understanding the research findings and facilitate a comprehensive analysis of the connections between various study aspects.

Interpretation of Theme 1: Intrinsic Motivation

      Intrinsic motivation emerged as a central theme in the findings, highlighting its significance as an internal driver for managers. This concept encompasses the motivation that arises from engaging in an activity for its inherent satisfaction and enjoyment rather than being driven by external rewards or pressures. Intrinsic motivation is rooted in an individual's genuine interest and passion for the task, where the activity becomes rewarding and fulfilling. It is a powerful force that propels managers to undertake their responsibilities with enthusiasm and dedication, fueled by the inherent value they find in their work. 

Subtheme 1-1: Personal Empowerment

      This study's findings section explores personal empowerment and its relationship with participants' intrinsic motivation to improve organizational processes. The desire for personal empowerment is linked to an inner drive for growth and development. This self-generated motivation fuels individuals' aspirations to enhance and refine processes within their workplace over time (Kotter, 1996).

      Participants in this study were not content with maintaining the status quo within their organizations. They understood the importance of actively pursuing new growth and development opportunities to make progress (Beer & Nohria, 2009). This self-driven motivation pushed them to strive for improvement in their professional lives, which aligns with the concept of organizational balance (Huizing et al., 1997).

      In addition to seeking continuous improvement, the participants wanted to question and challenge decisions made by senior management. This ability to ask questions and engage in inquiry is closely tied to their innate drive for self-improvement (Moran & Brightman, 2000). By actively questioning decisions, participants can gain fresh insights, refine their goals, and pinpoint areas for growth and development (De Bruyn et al., 2013).

      The findings also revealed that the participants were committed to their organizations' ongoing growth and advancement. This progressive mindset for development and progress stems from their ambition to elevate their professional lives and achieve their full potential (Kotter, 1996). The desire for personal empowerment and autonomy in driving organizational change is closely linked to the concept of entropy within business non-technology systems (Bruyn et al., 2014).

      The participants' unwavering commitment to self-improvement and organizational development demonstrates the power of an inherent passion for growth and excellence. This inner drive fosters progress, prompting individuals to ask vital questions, gain new understanding, and identify areas for growth (Beer & Nohria, 2009). The study's findings support the importance of personal empowerment and its relationship with individuals' intrinsic motivation to improve organizational processes and maintain organizational balance during periods of change and reorganization (Huizing et al., 1997).

Subtheme 1-2: Relevant Problems

      The findings of this study indicate that addressing relevant problems in the context of intrinsic motivation is essential for achieving organizational balance and minimizing entropy within business non-technology systems. Participants expressed the importance of ensuring that proposed process changes address the correct underlying problem. When the appropriate problems are addressed, individuals feel more satisfied with their work and become internally motivated to excel in their roles (Herraiz et al., 2013).

      The participants' experiences revealed the significance of understanding nuances within the processes they execute daily (Paul, as cited in the participant data). Grasping these subtleties allows for strategic thinking and action, fostering a culture of working smarter and not harder (Huysmans et al., 2012). By focusing on high-impact tasks and leveraging resources, participants were more effective and efficient in their work, enabling them to contribute to the organization's overall success (Ascari et al., 1995).

      Organizational balance is essential for mitigating the adverse effects of entropy within non-technology systems (Alekhin & Alekseev, 2022). The participants' pursuit of efficient and effective problem-solving indicates their intrinsic motivation to achieve organizational balance by aligning business processes and structures, promoting efficient communication, coordination, and decision-making (De Bruyn et al., 2013).

      Effective change management fosters intrinsic motivation among employees (Moran & Brightman, 2000). The findings of this study suggest that when individuals are intrinsically motivated, they are more likely to engage in activities that facilitate growth and success in their roles. This motivation fosters a culture of ongoing learning and innovation, ultimately resulting in improved processes, better resource usage, and overall success (Huizing et al., 1997).

      By understanding and managing the relevant problems facing the business, organizations can improve their efficiency, effectiveness, and adaptability, ultimately enhancing their overall performance (De Bruyn et al., 2013). Furthermore, effective change management is vital in promoting intrinsic motivation among employees, leading to a culture of continuous improvement and development (Moran & Brightman, 2000).

Subtheme 1-3: Outcome Focused

      The findings of this study emphasize the importance of adopting an outcome-focused approach when modernizing outdated business processes and achieving meaningful improvements. This approach prioritizes specific goals and results while effectively aligning actions, resources, and decisions. The diverse experiences of the study participants, including Paul, Charles, Amy, and Craig, demonstrate various ways organizations can implement outcome-focused strategies and the challenges and successes that can arise during the process.

      Organizational balance, as defined by Huizing et al. (1997), Ascari et al. (1995), and Alekhin & Alekseev (2022), is crucial for successfully managing entropy in business non-technology systems. By promoting organizational balance during periods of change and reorganization, companies can minimize the entropy within their systems, leading to more successful and sustainable transformations. 

      Entropy in business and computer systems is essential to understand and manage when aiming to improve efficiency, effectiveness, and adaptability. The research by De Bruyn et al. (2013), De Bruyn et al. (2012), and De Bruyn et al. (2014) emphasizes the importance of incorporating entropy measures into the design and analysis of business processes, enabling organizations to identify areas of inefficiency or misalignment and implement changes to optimize their operations.

      Change management, as described by Moran & Brightman (2000), Beer & Nohria (2009), and Kotter (1996), plays a vital role in helping organizations adapt to evolving external and internal customer needs. Effective change management requires strong leadership, a clear vision, and the ability to identify and address potential barriers to change. 

      Organizations can achieve meaningful progress and sustainable success in their strategic direction and processes by adopting an outcome-focused approach that prioritizes genuine improvement, effective change management, and proper resource allocation. This approach, combined with understanding organizational balance and entropy in business systems, can help businesses navigate change and maintain their competitive edge.

Interpretation of Theme 2: Ubiquitous Frustration

      Ubiquitous frustration emerged as a theme in the findings, highlighting its significance as 

a pervasive phenomenon experienced by participants in their workplace, characterized by enduring displeasure, irritation, and unhappiness in their professional tasks and interpersonal connections. The ubiquitous frustration experience is shaped by internal and external factors that hinder participants' optimal work performance. Participants face external circumstances outside their control that constantly inhibit their efficiency and productivity. Participants utilized two subthemes to navigate ubiquitous frustration: positive attitude, emphasizing an optimistic and solution-oriented mindset, and self-preservation, involving actions taken to safeguard their physical, emotional, and mental well-being amidst constant and pervasive irritation.

Subtheme 2-1: Positive Attitude

      The findings revealed the significance of a positive attitude in coping with adversity and achieving success in the face of persistent challenges. These findings align with the literature on organizational balance (Alekhin & Alekseev, 2022), suggesting that maintaining equilibrium and coherence among non-technological aspects of an organization can contribute to its effectiveness, adaptability, and performance.

      The participants' accounts highlighted the importance of self-motivation and inner drive in fostering a positive mindset, mainly when the work environment was unsupportive. This is consistent with the concept of entropy within business non-technology systems (De Bruyn et al., 2013), which posits that inherent disorder, randomness, and uncertainty can impact the efficiency and adaptability of organizational processes. By adopting a positive attitude, employees can better navigate the complexities and challenges associated with entropy in their professional lives.

      Moreover, the participants expressed the value of taking pride in their work and providing solutions to their organizations. This finding connects with the literature on change management (Moran & Brightman, 2000), which emphasizes the need for strong leadership, clear communication, and a comprehensive approach to addressing potential barriers to successfully navigate change and maintain a competitive edge. By taking pride in their work and company, participants can contribute to the overall success of themselves and their organizations.

      However, the study also revealed that maintaining a positive attitude was often challenging due to factors such as inefficient procedures, poor leadership, and insufficient collaboration within the organization. These factors contributed to the participants' frustration and hindered their ability to perform their duties effectively. This finding aligns with the research on entropy within systems (Lehman, 1980), which demonstrates that the interaction of people with systems and processes can change the functional dynamic of the system, resulting in system obsolescence.

      Despite these challenges, many participants recognized the importance of addressing their workplace frustrations to maintain a positive outlook. They understood their careers only comprised a small portion of their lives and remained resolute in not allowing adverse experiences at work to impact their personal lives negatively. This finding connects with the literature on organizational balance (Alekhin & Alekseev, 2022), emphasizing the need for equilibrium and coherence among non-technological aspects of an organization to maintain effectiveness, adaptability, and performance.

      By maintaining optimism and hope, even in the face of persistent challenges, employees can better cope with adversity, contribute to organizational success, and achieve a balanced and fulfilling personal life. These findings underscore the importance of fostering a positive mindset, addressing workplace frustrations, and promoting organizational balance to enhance individuals' and organizations' overall well-being and performance.

Subtheme 2-2: Self Preservation

      As proposed by Lehman (1980), entropy in systems is considered relevant in understanding self-preservation in the workplace. Randall (1985) and Herraiz et al. (2013) further explore the interaction between humans and systems, highlighting the importance of human factors in system dynamics. Similarly, Huysmans et al. (2012) propose that entropy theory can be applied to business processes. This perspective helps us understand the need for self-preservation strategies in the face of inefficient systems and processes in the workplace.

      As defined by Alekhin & Alekseev (2022), organizational balance plays a significant role in maintaining equilibrium among non-technological aspects of an organization. This balance is crucial during periods of change and reorganization. By promoting organizational balance, companies can minimize the entropy within their non-technology systems, leading to more successful and sustainable transformations.

      The concept of entropy in business non-technology systems, as described by De Bruyn et al. (2013), captures the inherent disorder and uncertainty present in organizational structures and processes. By understanding and managing this entropy, businesses can improve their efficiency, effectiveness, and adaptability (De Bruyn et al., 2014).

      Moran & Brightman (2000) discussed that change management is a comprehensive and structured approach that enables organizations to continuously adapt their direction, structure, and capabilities in response to evolving external and internal customer needs. Effective change management requires strong leadership, clear communication, and a comprehensive approach to addressing potential barriers (Kotter, 1996).

      These findings emphasize the significance of self-preservation strategies for employees dealing with pervasive frustration in the workplace. By delving into the human experience through phenomenological research and exploring the notions of entropy, organizational balance, and change management, this study offers insights into how participants can effectively navigate the hurdles encountered in their professional lives. Through these measures, participants can uphold their overall well-being, fostering a more stable and supportive work environment conducive to personal growth and flourishing, even in the face of inherent job challenges and frustrations.

Interpretation of Theme 3: Facilitated Collaboration

      The theme of facilitated collaboration emerged as a notable finding in our study, underscoring the importance of cooperative efforts and interconnected dynamics among team members and various groups within an organization. This process is characterized by its participant-driven nature, in which individuals come together to work on shared objectives and complete projects without needing a designated authority figure to oversee their progress. Facilitated collaboration is influenced by factors such as knowing one's audience, fostering strong working relationships, and cultivating a collaborative environment. The findings reveal two subthemes that play a crucial role in the facilitated collaboration experience: nurturing understanding and relational influence.

Subtheme 3-1: Nurturing Understanding

      Participants frequently exhibited a collaborative mindset and recognized the importance of effective team communication. They utilized the organization's available resources and tools to address their communication and collaboration needs, which contributed to maintaining positive working relationships with their teammates and colleagues from various departments.

      Establishing and sustaining these relationships required effort and persistence, as participants knew that poor interpersonal connections could lead to more significant problems within the organization and negatively impact productivity (Randall, 1985). As a result, participants worked to keep relationships strong and fruitful while carefully leveraging their connections to achieve desired outcomes, pushing the boundaries when necessary to accomplish the task at hand while maintaining a positive rapport with their colleagues (Herraiz et al., 2013).

      Participants recognized the importance of collaboration and communication in fostering understanding within the organization (De Bruyn et al., 2014). They aimed to break down any barriers that might prevent effective communication and foster an environment of openness and dialog (Alekhin & Alekseev, 2022). By doing so, participants would communicate freely with their colleagues and better understand what was happening within the teams (De Bruyn et al., 2013).

      The participants emphasized the significance of proper communication in disseminating and receiving information, which aligns with the concept of organizational balance discussed by Huizing et al. (1997), Ascari et al. (1995), and Alekhin & Alekseev (2022). Clear and effective communication was vital for ensuring that everyone was on the same page and that tasks were carried out efficiently (De Bruyn et al., 2014). By prioritizing effective communication, participants wanted to avoid misunderstandings and promote a sense of collective responsibility and accountability for the team's success (Beer & Nohria, 2009).

      Effective organizational communication requires consistency in messaging, which participants emphasized (Kotter, 2011). While communication was a crucial topic of discussion, participants recognized that without consistency in messaging, there is a risk of misunderstandings and misinterpretations that could hinder productivity and cause delays in task completion (Lehman, 1980; Randall, 1985). To break down barriers and foster an environment of openness and dialog, it is essential to ensure that everyone receives the same information (Herraiz et al., 2013). Consistency in messaging promotes a sense of collective responsibility and accountability for the team's success, allowing participants to work together towards common goals and carry out tasks efficiently (Huysmans & De Bruyn, 2014).

      Fostering understanding within an organization is closely linked to promoting facilitated collaboration, effective communication, and positive relationships among team members (Huizing et al., 1997). These elements are crucial for achieving success and reaching common goals within the organization. The participants' experiences in this context emphasize the significance of leveraging relationships, prioritizing effective communication, and maintaining consistency in messaging as essential strategies for promoting understanding and achieving organizational objectives (De Bruyn et al., 2013).

Subtheme 3-2: Relational Influence

      Relational influence, as defined earlier, refers to the effect an individual can exert on the perspectives, convictions, and actions of others in the context of personal or professional connections. By understanding the intricacies of relational influence, participants demonstrated how individuals' impact on each other's viewpoints and behaviors shapes the overall decision-making process, ultimately affecting the success and effectiveness of the company's improvements.

      An element of relational influence that the participants exhibited involved assessing the extent of their organizational control concerning decisions about process modifications. In reviewing these decisions, they believed there might be some room for them to adjust or alter the proposed changes (Lehman, 1980). The degree of flexibility was contingent on the individual's influence in the context of the specific decision (Herraiz et al., 2013). Furthermore, the participants maintained a practical approach to evaluating their control over various processes (Huysmans et al., 2012). They recognized that dwelling on matters well beyond their influence would be unproductive and thus avoided such discussions (Brant, 2012).

      During discussions about potential adjustments to changes, participants considered the different factors that could be altered within their sphere of influence (De Bruyn et al., 2014). They acknowledged that while some aspects, such as governmental mandates, could not be changed, others could be adapted and fine-tuned based on their assessment of the situation (Ascari et al., 1995). This approach underscored the importance of understanding one's influence in the decision-making process and utilizing it strategically to achieve the desired outcomes (Alekhin & Alekseev, 2022).

      Understanding who is part of the circle of influence is crucial; however, effectively communicating with the appropriate individuals within that circle at the right moment can be equally vital (Huizing et al., 1997). The participants expressed a desire for collaboration and inclusiveness in their discussions but frequently encountered situations where the relevant people were unavailable (Moran & Brightman, 2000). This unavailability resulted in gaps and delays in the processes they aimed to implement, highlighting the importance of effective communication in promoting organizational cohesion and driving progress (Beer & Nohria, 2009).

      Organizational balance, as described by Huizing et al. (1997), Ascari et al. (1995), and Alekhin & Alekseev (2022), is essential for the success of process and organizational change initiatives. By maintaining balance among various non-technology components, such as organizational structure, management, and culture, organizations can facilitate smooth transitions during reorganization processes, thus minimizing the potential for entropy and chaos in business non-technology systems (De Bruyn et al., 2013).

      Facilitated collaboration is significantly influenced by individuals' relational influence, effective communication, and organizational balance. By understanding their sphere of influence, participants worked with their team more effectively, made informed decisions, and adapted to changes (Kotter, 2011). This understanding was pivotal in enhancing teamwork and setting the organization up for success.

Interpretation of Theme 4: Perfunctory Acquiescence

      The theme of perfunctory acquiescence emerged as a finding in our study, underscoring the importance of cooperative efforts and interconnected dynamics among team members and various groups within an organization. This behavior often stems from a desire to avoid conflict or fulfill perceived obligations without genuine investment. Unquestioning compliance and bare minimums emerged as subthemes within perfunctory acquiescence. Unquestioning compliance refers to blind adherence without critical evaluation, while bare minimums denote minimal effort or work. Understanding these findings can help develop strategies to promote genuine engagement and commitment among participants.

Subtheme 4-1: Unquestioning Compliance

      The findings revealed that ongoing fatigue within organizations, caused by continuous changes, contributed to unquestioning compliance. This lack of stability due to constant shifts negatively impacted the company and its employees, leading them to adopt new changes without questioning their rationale (Lehman, 1980). The perpetual state of change exacerbated the issue, as valuable experience and internal knowledge were not harnessed to improve known process issues (Randall, 1985).

      Participants had grown more cynical, expressing that change acceptance was inevitable and adapting to proposed changes was necessary. A key factor contributing to this mindset was the need to meet specific metrics and objectives, disrupted by the relentless pace of change. This mindset decreased adaptability and increased the burden on the remaining team members to deliver on project objectives.

      Some participants who were closer to the proposed changes expressed confusion, as mandates made by higher-up individuals in the organization did not solve the problem they were attempting to address. This confusion often resulted from past experiences with similar change efforts that did not work due to not addressing the right problem (Ascari et al., 1995). Despite feeling this way, participants would still make the required changes, contributing to unquestioning compliance (Alekhin & Alekseev, 2022).

      Changes to systems and processes often necessitated participants to blindly accept changes, even without adequate communication or training (Moran & Brightman, 2000). Part of the struggle stemmed from the rapid pace of technological change, making it difficult for tools and training to be updated quickly (Beer & Nohria, 2009). This lack of training and communication ultimately led to further unquestioning organizational compliance (Kotter, 1996).

      Some participants discussed how observing changes occurring at competitors made them envious. These changes appeared to make competitors better and more efficient in the marketplace (De Bruyn et al., 2013). This envy led to a desire for improvement within their companies, even if they lacked faith in their organization's ability to change its operations (De Bruyn et al., 2014).

      The findings suggest that organizational balance, as defined by Huizing et al. (1997), Ascari et al. (1995), and Alekhin & Alekseev (2022), is crucial during periods of change to prevent unquestioning compliance and to promote practical change management. By maintaining equilibrium and coherence among non-technological aspects of an organization, companies can minimize entropy within their non-technology systems and facilitate successful and sustainable transformations (De Bruyn et al., 2014).

      The findings of this study highlight the importance of understanding and addressing the factors contributing to unquestioning compliance within organizations. By promoting organizational balance, improving communication and training, and fostering a culture of questioning and adaptability, companies can minimize the negative impacts of unquestioning compliance and improve their overall effectiveness during periods of change.

Subtheme 4-2: Bare Minimums

      The findings indicate that participants often engaged in bare minimums and perfunctory acquiescence in response to processing changes they disagreed with. Participants implemented partial solutions and complied with the spirit of the change rather than the letter of the change, believing they could ask for forgiveness later. This behavior can be understood in the context of organizational entropy, where the usefulness of a system or process diminishes over time (Lehman, 1980; Huysmans et al., 2012).

      Participants perceived the presence of inefficient processes as the primary reason for circumventing established procedures (Randall, 1985; Herraiz et al., 2013). They believed that achieving the minimum necessary to reach the desired goal was more important to the organization than rigidly adhering to the entire process (De Bruyn et al., 2013). This understanding led participants to bypass what they considered inefficient processes, viewing it as a win-win situation (De Bruyn et al., 2012).

      In the context of organizational balance, participants' behavior can be seen to maintain equilibrium and coherence among various non-technological aspects of the organization (Alekhin & Alekseev, 2022). Their actions contributed to the organization's effectiveness, adaptability, and performance during periods of change and reorganization (Huizing et al., 1997). By promoting organizational balance, companies can minimize the entropy within their non-technology systems, leading to more successful and sustainable transformations (Ascari et al., 1995; Alekhin & Alekseev, 2022).

      The findings also highlight the importance of effective change management and leadership in navigating the challenges of process changes (Beer & Nohria, 2009). Participants' perfunctory acquiescence and adoption of bare minimums strategies can be seen as a response to inadequate change management processes or a lack of solid leadership. As such, organizations must ensure clear communication, strong leadership, and a comprehensive approach to addressing potential barriers to change, ultimately fostering an environment that supports successful process change implementation (Moran & Brightman, 2000).

Implications for Future Research

      The findings of this study present multiple opportunities for future research. First, further investigation can examine the connection between intrinsic motivation and organizational balance, along with strategies and interventions to improve intrinsic motivation in the workplace. Moreover, future research can investigate the factors causing widespread frustration and devise strategies to mitigate its adverse effects on individuals and organizations. Additionally, studies can explore the intricacies of facilitated collaboration, including the roles of leadership, communication, and organizational culture in fostering practical cooperation. Finally, future research can investigate the root causes of superficial compliance and create interventions to encourage genuine engagement and commitment among employees during times of change.

      The insights derived from this study's results offer valuable guidance for future research. By understanding managers' experiences with entropy in business systems, strategies and interventions can be developed to promote intrinsic motivation, address frustration, facilitate collaboration, and reduce superficial compliance. Bridging the gap between research and practice allows organizations to refine their processes, improve employee well-being, and achieve enhanced overall performance.

      This study delves into managers' personal experiences as they encounter entropy within diverse business processes, introducing a human element to the entropy that complements the Monte Carlo simulations previously examined by De Bruyn & Mannaert (2013). This unique approach provides valuable insights into the real-world ramifications of entropy in the context of business management.

      Furthermore, this study's findings support the theory De Bruyn et al. (2013) proposed regarding entropy generation during process establishment. As a result, the research offers empirical validation for this theory and expands our comprehension of the phenomenon. This interaction between theoretical and practical perspectives aids in bridging the gap between academic research and real-world business challenges.

      In conclusion, the research's emphasis on managers' experiences with entropy in business processes presents a novel perspective on the subject. It humanizes the complex simulations explored by De Bruyn & Mannaert (2013) and confirms the theories presented by De Bruyn et al. (2013) concerning entropy's involvement in process development. This comprehensive approach holds the potential to inform future research and the creation of practical solutions for businesses facing entropy.

Implications for Future Practice

      Entropy is a phenomenon that permeates various aspects of business management, including intrinsic motivation, frustration, collaboration, and compliance. As businesses evolve and grow, understanding how entropy interacts with these elements becomes crucial to improving employee well-being and enhancing overall organizational performance. This section examines the implications of recent findings on entropy in business processes, offering actionable strategies and insights that organizations can adopt to overcome the challenges presented by entropy.

Promoting Intrinsic Motivation

      The connection between intrinsic motivation and organizational balance is pivotal in fostering employee satisfaction and productivity. To enhance intrinsic motivation, organizations must create a work environment that empowers individuals, promotes a sense of purpose, and acknowledges employees' contributions. Encouraging employees to pursue their passions and providing opportunities for growth and development will help organizations capitalize on the potential of intrinsically motivated individuals and support the overall organizational balance.

Addressing Frustration

      Frustration is a widespread issue within organizations, and it can have far-reaching implications on employee morale, productivity, and retention. To mitigate the adverse effects of frustration, organizations should identify its root causes and devise targeted strategies to alleviate them. Open communication, transparent decision-making, and prompt conflict resolution can help to prevent misunderstandings, improve employee engagement, and ensure that frustration is promptly addressed before it festers and undermines organizational stability.

Facilitating Collaboration

      Collaboration is essential to the success of any organization, and the role of leadership, communication, and organizational culture cannot be underestimated in fostering an environment conducive to teamwork. Influential leaders must cultivate a culture that embraces diversity, nurtures trust, and promotes open communication. In addition, organizations should invest in technology and tools that streamline collaboration, enabling employees to share ideas, information, and resources efficiently.

Reducing Superficial Compliance

      Superficial compliance can hamper organizational success and impede genuine employee engagement. To encourage authentic commitment among employees, organizations should clearly understand the reasons behind change initiatives and involve employees in the decision-making process. By doing so, organizations can foster a sense of ownership, promote accountability, and motivate employees to participate in implementing and sustaining positive change actively.

      The implications of entropy in business processes are profound, impacting various facets of organizational management. By understanding and addressing the challenges associated with entropy, organizations can implement targeted strategies to enhance intrinsic motivation, reduce frustration, facilitate collaboration, and ensure genuine compliance. These measures will improve employee well-being and contribute to the organization's overall success and growth. By bridging the gap between research and practice, organizations can harness the insights offered by this study on entropy to refine their processes and achieve enhanced performance.

      

 

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